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CLASSICAL 



ANTIQUITIES; 



PART OF THE "MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE.' 

FROM THE GERMAN OF 

J. J. ESCHENBURG, 

PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK. 



tmtl) 2tf>Mtions. 



EMBRACING TREATISES ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS 



I. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRA- 
PHY. 
II. CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



III. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

IV. GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 
V. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



BY 



N. W. FISKE, 

PROFESSOR IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 



FOURTH EDITION. 




PHILADELPHIA : 

EDWARD C. BIDDLE, 6 SOUTH FIFTH STREET. 

'STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON. 



1843. 



3) ^ /**/« 



.EGS 
m3 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1843, by Edward C. Biddle, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 




, 



i C 



STEREOTYPED B i' L. JOHNSON. 
T. K. &. P. G. COLLINS, PHILA.. 



PREFACE. 



For an account of the origin and design of the Manual of Classical 
Literature, the reader is respectfully referred to the Preface to that 
work. The present volume is a portion of the Manual, including 
but three of its Jive Parts. These three, viz. : Classical Geography 
and Chronology, Greek and Roman Mythology, and Greek and Ro- 
man Antiquities, are published separately, from a regard to the 
wishes of some teachers, especially in the primary classical schools. 

The reasons for a separate publication of these parts will appear, 
when it is considered, that the scholar, in the very commencement 
of his classical studies, needs some guide and help in each of these 
branches, while it is not so essential that he should attend particu- 
larly at first to the branches with which the two other parts of the 
Manual are occupied. The whole ground embraced in the Manual, 
the student must, indeed, go over before completing his classical 
course ; but the Archeology of Literature and Art, and the System- 
atic History and Criticism of the Classical Authors, are not often 
included in the studies at the Academy. In consequence of sug- 
gestions of this kind, a thousand copies of the three parts contained 
in this volume were printed in connection with the first and second 
editions of the Manual, and the demand for them has been such as 
to induce the publisher to issue another impression. 

This new edition of the volume styled Classical Antiquities is 
much more valuable than the former, as it corresponds to the fourth 
edition of the Manual, and is illustrated by numerous engravings. 

A peculiarity of this volume, which has greatly recommended it 
in the estimation of teachers, is its comprehensiveness united with a 
fullness of detail sufficient for all the common purposes of elementary 
instruction. Ancient Geography with the Topography of Rome 
and Athens, Classical Chronology, Mythology, Greek Antiquities, 
and Roman Antiquities, are here presented within the compass of 
304 pages. There is not in the English language, it is believed, 
another work in which these topics, all so essential to the young 
classical scholar, are brought into one volume and thus adapted for 
daily use. If, because the work comprehends so much, any ^ne 
should be disposed to infer that each part must be defective, he is 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

requested to examine and compare. The Epitome of Classical 
Geography will be found to comprise every thing of special import- 
ance in Butler's work on the subject, with much improvement in 
several points of arrangement, and an account far more complete 
of the remains of Rome, Athens, and other cities. The Introduction 
to Chronology contains what is most essential in the Treatise of 
Hegeivisch, with many things of great importance not found in that, 
nor in any of the works on Antiquities now in use. The Treatise 
on Greek Antiquities is by no means intended to exclude such a 
work as Potter's, which is more minute on some points ; but the 
competent teacher will discover that this condensed treatise contains 
important information for which his pupil will search in vain in 
Potter ; and he will on comparison find it as full on every essential 
point as any other treatise used in our country, while the Greek 
Mythology and Topography are given separately and with much 
greater fullness. In the Roman Antiquities the plan of the work 
did not allow that frequent citation of the Latin authors which marks 
the pages of Mam; and the treatise is not expected wholly to super- 
sede the use of that or some larger work ; but a comparison of the 
treatise in this volume with any other used in American schools, will 
satisfy the teacher that it is more full and complete, independently of 
the Roman Mythology, Geography and Topography introduced 
separately; and some persons of experience in teaching have 
expressed their conviction, that the scholar is likely to obtain from 
the study of a treatise like this, a better general knowledge of Roman 
Antiquities than from the study of such a work as that of Adam ; on 
this point, however, the translator ought perhaps to be silent. 

There is another peculiarity, which distinguishes this work, viz. : 
that it presents numerous references to authors treating of the 
general subjects, and also, in many cases, to works on particular 
topics introduced. These references are given in such a manner as 
not to delay or embarrass the youngest student, and yet they may 
help the more advanced scholar and the teacher to find readily further 
information, if they wish and have the time and means at command. 

In offering to American teachers and scholars this new edition, 
the author may be allowed to express his hope that it may subserve 
in some degree the highly important cause of classical and liberal 
education ; from an ardent desire to promote which he originally 
prepared the Translation of Eschenburg's Manual. 

Amherst College, July, 1843. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 



EPITOME J)F CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Introduction, p. 3, 4. 
$$ 1-5. = § 1-3 Portion of earth known 
to ancients. $ 4, 5 Ancient divisions. 

I. Of Europe, p. 4-43. 

§§ 6-148. = § 6, 7 Extent and bounda-' 
ries. § 8 General subdivisions. % 9-15 
Northern countries of Europe ; Scandina- 
via, Cimbrica, Sarmatia, Germania, &c. 
\ 16-26 Middle countries of Europe ; Gal- 
lia, Rhsetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyri- 
cum, Mcesia, Dacia. § 27-129 Southern 
countries of Europe. § 29-31 Hispania. 
§ 32-50 Italia. § 51-71 Topography of 
Rome. $ 51, 52 Gates and roads. § 53 
Bridges and hills. § 54 Districts. Re- 
ferences to writers on the topography of 
the city. $ 55 Campi. $ 56 Streets. $ 57 
Fora. § 58-60 Temples and groves. 
§ 61-63 Curiae, basilicae, circuses ; theatres, 
&c. § 64 Baths. $ 65-67 Schools, por- 
ticos, columns, trophies, &c. § 68 Aque- 
ducts. Sewers. % 69 Monuments to the 
dead. $ 70 Dwellings. $ 71 Villas. Sub- 
urbs. % 72-75 Thracia. $ 76 Four na- 
tural divisions of Graecia. § 77-81 Mace- 
donia. § 82-85 Thessalia. § 86-88 Epirus. 
$ 89-103 Hellas. $ 104-116 Topography 
of Athens. $ 104, 105 Its situation. $ 106 
The Acropolis. § 107 Parthenon and 
other buildings of the citadel. § 108-110 
The lower city and its temples. § 111 
Porches. Odea. Ceramicus. § 112, 113 
Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. § 114 
Areopagus. Pnyx. $ 115 Theatres. Cho- 
ragic monuments. § 116 Harbors. Re- 
ferences to writers on the topography of 
Athens. % 117-125 Peloponnesus. §126- 
129 Topography of Sparta. § 126 Form 
and situation. $ 127 Forum. $ 128 Co- 
lumns and statues. $ 129 Hippodrome. 
Harbor. References to writers. §130-148 
European Islands. $ 130-136 Britannia 
and adjoining islands. § 137 Balearicse. 
Corsica and Sardinia. $ 138-140 Sicilia. 
§ 141, 142 Ionian islands, $ 143-148 
iEgean islands. 

II. Of Asia, p. 43-53. 

$$ 149-172. = § 149, 150 Extent and 
general division of Asia. § 151-155 Coun- 
tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, 
Sinae, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 
$ 156-171 Countries of the Western divi- 
sion. $ 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, 

a 



Iberia. § 157 Armenia. $ 158-165 Asia 
Minor. § 166 Syria. Phoenicia. $ 167-169 
Palaestina. § 168 b. Topography of Jeru- 
salem. § 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia 
and Assyria. § 171 Arabia. $ 172 Asia- 
tic islands. 

III. Of Africa, p. 53-57. 
§§ 173-183. = $ 173 Extent and divisions 
of Africa. § 174-176 Egypt. § 177 An- 
cient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works 
on the subject. $ 178 ^Ethiopia. § 179 
Libya. $ 180 Africa Propria. § 181 Nu- 
midia. $ 182 Mauritania. § 183 Africa 
Interior. Atlantis. 

INTRODUCTION to classical chrono- 
logy. 

Preliminary Remarks, p. 59. 
§ 184. Importance of the subject. De- 
sign of present sketch. Two parts. 

I. Of measuring time and adjusting Us 
divisions, p. 59-63. 

% 185-196. = $ 185 The three natural 
divisions of time ; day, month, and year. 
§ 186, 187 Ancient customs as to be- 
ginning and dividing the day. § 188 De- 
vices for marking and making known the 
parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. § 189, 
190 The month. The Grecian system. 
§ 191 a, 191 b. Roman method of reckoning 
the months, and the days of the month. 
The week. Names of the days. $ 192 
The year. The Grecian ; Roman ; Ju- 
lian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and 
new style. § 193 Cycles. § 194 The 
lunar cycle, i 195 The solar. $196 The 
cycle of indiction. Julian Period. 

II. Of fixing the dates of historical 
events and arranging them in order, 
p. 63-79. 

$§ 197-215. = $ 197 Topics noticed in 
this part. § 198-201 Methods of ascertai?i- 
ing dates. 1. Successive generations ; and 
successive reigns of kings. 2. Celestial 
appearances. 3. Coins, inscriptions, &c. 
4. Historical testimony. $ 202, 203 Epochs 
and eras. Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ; 
the Christian ; the Mahometnn ; of the 
French Republic. $ 204-207 Systems and 
tables. $ 204 Claims of the Egyptians and 
Babylonians. $ 205 The Hebrew and 
the Septuagint chronology. Newton's. 
Usher's. $ 206, 207 Various plans for 
2 v 



CONTENTS. 



charts. The best. § 208-215 Actual dates 
of most prominent events. § 208 Common 
complaint of students. Remedy. § 209 
Brief outline of General Chronology. § 210 
Systems of artificial memory. § 211 Chro- 
nology of ancient states ; eight principal 



states of Asia ; references to works on their 
history ; Assyrian ; Jewish ; Trojan ; Ly- 
dian; Persian; Syrian; Parthian. §212 
Of the two principal in Africa ; Egyptian ; 
Carthaginian. § 213 Of Greece. § 214, 
215 Of Rome. 



PART II. 



MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 



Introduction, p. 83-90. 
§§ 1-12. — § 1 Circumstances calculated 
to give a fabulous character to early tradi- 
tions. § 2 Mythology in the Greek, and 
in the modern sense of the term. § 3 Dif- 
ferent points of view in contemplating my- 
thological fables. § 4 Changes and addi- 
tions in mythological stories. § 5 Different 
sources of mythological fabrications. § 6 
Advantages of an acquaintance with my- 
thology. § 7 Eastern origin of the Gre- 
cian deities. § 8 The Roman gods bor- 
rowed from the Greeks. § 9 The Greek 
and Roman system of classifying their gods. 
§ 10 The four classes under which they 
are arranged in this work. § 11 The no- 
lions of deity entertained by the Greeks 
and Romans. Abode of the gods. § 12 
References to works treating on the subject. 

I. Mythological History of the Superior 
gods, p. 91-113. 

§§ 13-67. = § 13 Gods included in this 
class. § 14-17 Saturn. § 18 Janus. 
§ 19-21 Cybele or Rhea. § 22-25 Jupiter. 
§ 26-28 Juno. § 29-31 Neptune. § 32-34 
Pluto. § 35-37 Apollo. § 38-40 Diana. 
§ 41-43 Minerva. § 44-46 Mars. § 47-50 
Venus. Cupid. § 51-54 Vulcan. §55-56 
Mercury. § 57-60 Bacchus. Silenus. 
§ 61-64 Ceres. § 65-67 Vesta. 

II. Mythological History of the Inferior 
gods, p. 113-124. 

§§ 68-96. = § 68 Gods included in this 
class, § 69, 70 Coelus. §71, 72 Sol or Me- 
lius. § 73 Luna. § 74, 75 Aurora. § 76 Nox. 
§ 77 Iris. § 78 JEolus. § 79, 80 Pan. 
§ 81, 82 Latona. § 83 Themis. Astrcea. 
Nemesis. § 84 iEsculapius. § 85 Plutus. 
§ 86 Fortune. § 87 Fame. § 88 Deities 



peculiar to the Greeks. § 89-95 Deities 
peculiar to the Romans. § 90 Tiber. 
Roma. § 91. Terminus. Priapus. Ver- 
tumnus. Flora. Feronia. Pales. § 92 
Gods presiding over various conditions or 
pursuits of men. Bellona, Juturna, &c. 
§ 93 Victoria. § 94 Deified Roman em- 
perors. § 95 Virtues and Vices. § 96 
Egyptian deities worshiped among the 
Romans. 

III. Mythical beings, whose history is 
intimatelv connected with that of the gods, 
p. 124-132. 

§§ 97-1 17. = § 97 Titans. § 98 Giants. 
Pygmies. § 99 Tritons. § 100 Sirens. 
§ 101 Nymphs. § 102, 103 Muses. § 104 
Graces. § 105 Hours. § 106 Fates. § 107 
Furies. § 108 a. Harpies. § 108 b. Venti 
or Winds. § 109 Daemons. §110 Manes. 
§ 111 Lares. § 112 Penates. § 113 Sleep, 
Dreams, and Death. § 114 Satyrs and 
Fauns. §115Gorgons. §116 Amazons. 
§ 117 Minotaur, Chinioera, and various 
other monsters. 

IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 
132-137. 

§§ 118-133. = § 118 Three periods of 
Grecian story. § 119 General cause of the 
deification of heroes. § 120 Two classes 
of venerated heroes. § 121 Inachus, Ox- 
gyges, Cecrops, and several others, ho- 
nored specially among their own people. 
§ 122 Perseus. Atlas. § 123, 124 Her- 
cules. § 125, 126 Theseus. § 127, 128 
Jason and the Argonauts. § 129 Castor 
and Pollux. § 130 Heroes of the Theban 
war. § 131 Pelops and his descendants. 
§ 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. § 133 
Deified Roman emperors. 



PART III. 

GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction, p. 140-145. 
§§ 1-14. = § 1 Origin of the name 
Graecia. § 2 Countries included under it. 
§ 3 Most important Grecian cities. § 4 Po- 
litical changes. § 5 First inhabitants. § 6 
Their early intercourse. § 7 Early forms 



of government. § 8 The Spartan system. 
§ 9 Athens. § 10 Causes of Grecian im- 
provement. § 11 Utility of study of An- 
tiquities, and of Grecian in particular. § 12 
Original sources of knowledge on the sub- 
ject. § 13 References to authors. § 14 
Defects in the common treatises on Greek 
antiquities. Early and later ages distinct. 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



I. Of the Earlier and less cultivated 
Ages, p. 145-160. 

§ 15 The period included. Subject di- 
vided into four branches. 

I. Religious Affairs. 
% 16-32. ==% 16 First traces of the reli- 
gion of the Greeks. § 17 Form and mode 
of religious instruction. $ 18 Influence of 
the poets. § 19 Number and character of 
the gods. § 20 Temples and sacred places. 
§ 21 Images and statues. $ 22 Priests 
and Priestesses. § 23 Rites; ablutions. 
§ 24 Prayers. § 25 Sacrifices ; the ma- 
terials ; the origin. § 26 Altars. § 27 
Sacrifices ; the ceremonies. § 28 Gifts and 
offerings. § 29 Worship rendered to he- 
roes. § 30 Funeral solemnities. § 31 
Burning of corpse ; monuments. § 32 
Oracles and divination. 



II. Civil Affairs. 
33-41. = § 33 Early rudeness. 



34 



Power of the kings. § 35 Their retinue 
and councillors. § 36 Courts of justice. 
§ 37 Laws and punishment. § 38 The 
Cretan laws. § 39 Successive forms of 
government at Athens. § 40 At Sparta. 
§ 41 Commerce and Navigation. 

III. Military Affairs. 

§§ 42-51. =§ 42 Early Greeks warlike. 
§ 43 Their armies, how composed. § 44 
Weapons; Defensive. § 45 Offensive. 
§ 46 The materials of which made. § 47 
War-galleys. § 48 Camps. § 49 Order 
of Battle. § 50 Division of Spoils. Bar- 
barous stripping of the slain. Combat of 
chiefs. § 51 Treaties. 

IV. Domestic Affairs. 

§§ 52-63 = § 52 Common food. Daily 
meals. § 53 Social repasts. § 54 Dress. 
§ 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of 
the Hair. § 56 Houses. § 57 Hospitality. 
§ 58 Employments ; agriculture ; hunting. 
§ 59 Employments of women. § 60 Amuse- 
ments. § 61 Marriage. § 62 Education 
of children. § 63 Slaves. 

II. Of the Later and more flourishing 
Ages, p. 160-223. 

I. Religious Affairs. 
§§ 64-90. = § 64 Number of gods in- 
creased. § 65 a. Temples more splendid. 
§ 65 b. Altars. § 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 
§ 67 Classes of priests. Purification. $68 
Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. § 69 
Oaths. Leagues. § 70 Oracles. Im- 
posture at Argos. § 71 Oracles of Jupi- 
ter; atDodona; in Crete ; African desert. 
§ 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. § 74 Of 
Trophonius ; of iEsculapius, and others. 
§ 75 Arts and methods of divination. § 76, 
77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of 
Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. 
§ 78 Games. § 79 The race. § 80 Leap- 
ing. § 81 Wrestling. § 82 The discus. 
§ 83 Boxing. § 84 Four sacred games. 



Olympic. § 85 Pythian. § 86 Nemean. 
§ 87 Isthmian. § 88 System of athletics. 
§ 89 Theatres, and dramatic representa- 
tions. Masks. Chorus. § 90 Theoric 
money at Athens. 

II. Civil Affairs. 

§§ 91-134. = ^ 91 Athens and Sparta 
distinguished by peculiarities. § 92 Draco 
and Solon at Athens. § 93 The tribes and 
classes at Athens. § 94 Pisistratus, and 
his sons. § 95 The thirty tyrants. Form 
of government after them until death of 
Alexander. § 96 Buildings of Athens. 
§ 97 The free citizens of Athens. § 98 
The foreign residents. § 99 The slaves. 
§ 100 Magistrates. § 101 The Archons. 
§ 102 The Eleven ; Orators ; Ambassa- 
dors; Notaries, &c. § 103 Athenian re- 
venues. § 104 Officers of the revenue and 
treasury. Expenditures. § 105 Amphic- 
tyonic council. § 106 Assemblies of the 
people. § 107 Athenian senate. § 108 Areo- 
pagus. § 109 Athenian courts of justice. 
The Ephetaa. § 110 The Heliaea. §111 
The Forty. The Diaetetaa. § 112 Dif- 
ferent kinds of actions. § 1 1 3 Punishments. 
§ 114 The Ostracism. § 115 Modes of in- 
flicting death. § 116 Public rewards and 
honors. § 117 Attic laws. § 118 Natural 
situation of Sparta. § 119 Spartan tribes. 
§ 120 Treatment of children at Sparta. 
§ 121 Spartan slaves. § 122 The kings of 
Sparta. § 123 The Senate. Ephori. $ 124 
Momophulakes and other magistrates. 
§ 125 Assemblies of the people. § 126 Pub- 
lic repasts. § 127 Judicial affairs. § 128 
Punishments. § 129 Laws of Sparta. 
§ 130 Cretan constitution. § 131 Cretan 
laws ; public meals ; slaves. § 132 Con- 
stitution of Thebes. § 133 Constitutions 
of Corinth and Syracuse. § 134 Of Argos, 
of iEtolia, and Achaia. 

III. Military Affairs. 

§ 135-160. = § 135 The warlike character 
retained ; especially by the Spartans. § 136 
Persons liable to military duty. Their 
support. § 137 Classes of troops. The 
infantry. §138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants. 
§ 139 Armor. § 140 Various officers. 
§ 141 The divisions of the army. § 142 
Forms of Battle-array. Manoeuvres. §143 
Declaration of war. Treaties. § 144 
Camps. § 145 Standards and ensigns. 
Signals for battle. § 146 Art of besieging. 
§ 147 Military engines. § 148 Defence of 
cities. § 149 Treatment of captured places. 
§ 150 Division of spoils. § 151 Military 
rewards and punishments. § 152 Means 
of conveying intelligence. § 153 Crossing 
of rivers. § 154, 155 Ships ; Names of 
their principal parts ; Vessels of war. § 156 
Rowers, sailors and marines ; Manner of 
placing the seats of rowers. § 157 Instru- 
ments employed in naval battle. § 158 
Naval officers. § 159 Manner of naval 
battle. § 160 Naval victories and monu- 
ments. Naval punishments. 



vm 



CONTENTS. 



IV. Affairs of Private Life. 
§§ 161-187. = § 161 Food. Use of wines. 
$ 162 The different meals. Manner of 
spending the day at Athens. § 163 Enter- 
tainments or leasts. § 164 Customs at 
table. § 165 Substances eaten at the prin- 
cipal meal. § 166 Officers and attendants 
at an entertainment. § 167 Drinking ves- 
sels. Customs in drinking. Amusements 
accompanying a feast. § 168 Customs of 
hospitality. Officers called Proxeni. Inns. 
§ 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. 
Use of silk. Adorning of the person. §170 
Bathing and anointing. § 171 Houses. 
§ 172 Commerce and Agriculture. § 173, 
174 Grecian money and coins. Ratio of 
Gold and silver. § 175 Greek system of 
notation. § 176 Grecian weights. $ 177 
Measures. § 178 Social amusements. 
§ 179, 180 Music and musical instruments. 
§ 181 Condition of females. § 182 Laws 
and customs respecting marriage. §§ 183 
-186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in 
honor of the dead, with orations and games. 
§ 187 Sepulchral monuments. 

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction, p. 225-229. 
§§ 188-198. = § 188 Origin of Rome. 
§ 189 Principal events which affected the 
appearance of the city. Comparative 
splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 
§ 190 Population of Rome. § 191 Extent 
of the Roman empire. § 192 Proportion 
of soldiers and other citizens. § 193 The 
time of the regal government. § 194 Most 
brilliant era of Roman history. § 195 Con- 
dition under the emperors. § 196 Utility 
of studying Roman antiquities. Original 
sources of information on the subject. § 197 
References to modern works and authors. 
$ 198 Division of the subject. 

I. Religious Affairs, p. 229-248. 
§§ 199-239. = § 199 Use of the term re- 
ligio. § 200 Origin of the religion of the 
Romans. § 201 Its connection with poli- 
tics. § 202 Design of Romulus and Numa. 
Gods of the Romans. § 203 Temples. 
§ 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. § 205 
Altars. § 206 Vessels employed in sacri- 
fices. § 207 Several orders of priests. § 208 
Pontifices. § 209 Augurs. Various me- 
thods of augury. § 210 Haruspices. §211 
Epulones. § 212 Feciales. § 213 Rex 
sacrorum. § 214 Flamines. § 215 Salii. 
§ 216 Luperci. § 217 Galli and others. 
§ 218 Vestal virgins. § 219 Fratres Arva- 
les, Curiones, and others. § 220 Customs 
in offering prayers. § 221 Sacrifices and 
attendant rites. § 222 Vows. § 223 De- 
dication of sacred buildings. § 224 Expia- 
tions. The lustrum. § 225 Oaths. § 226 
Oracles. § 227 Lots. § 228 Divisions of 
time. § 229, 230 Festivals. § 231 Public 
games. § 232, 233 Ludi Circenses. Nau- 
machia. § 234 Ludi Seculares. § 235 
Ludi Gladiatorii. § 236 Ludi Florales. 
§ 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cereales, and 



others. § 238 Theatres, Masks, &c. 
§ 239 Amphitheatres. 

II. Civil Affairs, p. 248-270. 
§§ 240-274. = § 240 Regal government. 
§241 Consuls. §242 Imperial government. 
§ 243 Preetors. § 244 ^Ediles. § 245 Tri- 
bunes. § 246 Quaestors. § 247 Censors. 
§ 248, 249 Extraordinary magistrates ; 
Dictator; Decemviri; Military Tribunes ; 
Praefects. Interrex, &c. § 250 Procon- 
suls, and other provincial magistrates. §251 
Tribes. § 252 Six classes of citizens. Cen- 
turies. § 253 Patricians and plebeians. 
§ 254 The populace. Patrons and clients. 
§ 255 Roman nobility. Right of images. 
Curule office. § 256 The Equites or 
Knights. § 257 The Senate. § 258, 259 
The Comitia. § 260 Right of citizenship. 
Government of conquered cities and na- 
tions. § 261 Judicial proceedings. Public 
actions and trials. § 262 Private actions. 
§ 263 Penal offences. § 264 Punishments. 
§ 265 System of laws. Body of Roman 
civil law. § 266 Regulations respecting 
grain. § 267 Revenue. Saltworks. Mines. 
§ 268 Various Pursuits. Commerce. Me- 
chanic arts. § 269 Agriculture. Carriages. 
§ 270 Money. Coins. § 271 System of 
reckoning and notation. § 272 Modes of 
acquiring property. § 273 Auctions. Con- 
fiscations. § 274 Measures of extent, &c. 
Modes of determining the Roman foot. 

III. Affairs of War, p. 270-285. 
§§ 275-309. — § 275 Authorities on the 
subject. § 276 Military establishment of 
the kings. § 277 Persons liable to duty. 
Time of service. § 278 Consular army. 
Exempts. § 279 System of levy. § 280 
Classes of troops. § 281 Subdivision into 
maniples, &c. § 282 Standards. Music. 
§ 283 Weapons. § 284 Wages. Rewards. 
§ 285 Punishments. § 286 Order of battle. 
§ 287 Modes of attack. § 288 Light troops. 
§ 289, 290 Cavalry. § 291 Cohorts. § 292 
Auxiliaries. § 293 Attendants upon the 
army. § 294 Order of march. §295 Forms 
of array. § 296, 297 The Camp. § 298 
Watches. Exercises of soldiers. § 299 
Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers. 
Battering ram and other engines. § 300 
Modes of defence in a siege. § 301 The 
fleets. § 302 Method of naval battle. §.303 
Construction and parts of Roman ships. 
§ 304 Different kinds of vessels. § 305 
Rewards of generals. § 306 Laws on the 
subject. § 307 The triumph. § 308 The 
ovation. § 309 Military system under the 
emperors. 

IV. Affairs of Private Life, p. 285-304. 
§§ 310-343. =§ 310 The free-born and 
the free-made discriminated. § 31 1 System 
of applying proper names. § 312 Regula- 
tions respecting marriage. § 313, 314 
Marriage contracts. § 315 Nuptial cere- 
monies. § 316 Divorces. § 317 The right 
and power of the father over his children. 
§ 318 Emancipation of sons. § 319 Adop- 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



tion. § 320 Legitimation. § 321 Educa- 
tion of youth. § 322 Slaves. § 323 Slave 
trade. § 324 Emancipation of slaves. 
§ 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of 
a Roman house. § 326 Country seats or 
villas. $ 327 Manner of life. Morals. 
§ 328 Daily routine of employment. Bath- 
ing. § 329 Food and meals. Furniture 
for eating. § 330 Different courses at 
supper. Roman hospitality. § 331 a. 
Drinking and games at banquets. Dice. 
$ 331 6. Wines. $ 332 Dress. The toga. 



§ 333 The tunic. Badges. § 334 The 
stola and other garments of women. 
§ 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. 
§ 336 Coverings for the head and feet. 
§ 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personal 
ornaments. § 339 Funeral customs. Ex- 
posure of the corpse. $ 340 Funeral pro- 
cessions. Eulogy. § 341 Burning. Place 
of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. § 342 
Mourning for the deceased. Games and 
sacrifices. § 343 Consecration, or deifica- 
tion of deceased emperors. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 



1. Frontispiece. View of Delphi and the 
Heights of Parnassus, as given by Bocage in 
Bar'tkclemy's Anacharsis. See the volume of 
Dates, p. 71, as cited P. V. $ 153. 3.— cf. P. I. 
$97. 

2. Reverse of Title. (Facing Page v.) 
Representation of the Oracle of Apollo. Cf. P. 
III. $$ 72, 73. 

3. Map of Ancient World. (Page 2.) The 
World according to Ptolemy, as given in Mur- 
ray's Encyclopedia of Geography. Cf. P. I. $ 3. 

4. Plate I. (Page 14.) Plans of Athens and 
Rome. See P. I. $$ 51-71, 104-116. 

5. Plate II. (Page 16.) The Tiber, and the 
Citv of Rome, symbolized. Cf. P. II. $ 90; P. IV. 
$ 226. 1. 

6. Plate III. (Page 18.) The Pantheon. Cf. 
P. I. $ 59. 

7. Plate IV. (Page 23.) Plain and Acropo- 
lis of Philippi. Cf. P. I. $80. 

8. Plate IV a. (Page 30.) Ruins at Athens 
of the Temple of Neptune and that of Minerva 
Pandrosos. Cf. P. I. $ 107; P. III. $ 96. 

9. Plate IV 6. (Page 35.) Rzd7is at Corinth. 
Cf. P. I. $ 120. 

10. Plate IV c. (Page 37.) Village of Mis- 
tra ; near the ancient Sparta. Cf. P. I. $ 126- 
129. 

11. Plate V. (Page 39.) Cabirian Temple 
at Thessalonica. Cf. P. I. $ 80; P. II. $ 129. 2. 

12. Plate VI. (Page 42.) Colossal Statue 
of the Sun. Cf. P. I. $ 147 ; P. II. $ 72; P. IV. 
$ 180. 1. 

13. Plate Via. (Page 45.) Valley of the 
ancient Thebarma. Cf. P. I. $ 154 6. 

14. Plate VI b. (Page 49.) View of Broosa, 
the ancient Brusa. Cf. P. I. $ 160. 

15. Plate VII. (Page 50.) Temple of Janus 
at Rome, and that of the Sun at Heliopolis. Cf. 
P. I. $ 166, $ 60 ; P. IV. $ 234. 3. 

16. Plate VIII. (Page 55.) The Egyptian 
Sphinx, &c. Cf. P. I. $ 177; P. II. $ 117, $ 96. 

17. Plate VIII a. (Page 58.) A Portion of the 
Peutingerian Table. Cf. P. V. $ 497. It is pre- 
sented here as given in H. Murray's Encyclo- 
paedia of Geography (Phil. 1838, 3 vols. 4), from 
which is taken the following explanation of the 
figures and letters on the Plate; with no change 
except that of adding in parentheses the com- 
mon Latin form of some of the names. 

North Part. 

Cities. Cities. 

1. Siscia. 32. Bononia. 

2. Sardona. 33. Clusio (Clusium). 

3. Aquinco (Aquincum). 34. Volsini (Vulsioii). 

4. Brigantio (Bregetio). 35. Aquas-Passaris. 

5. Jadera. 36. Ravenna. 

6. Ragadone (Ragondo). 37. Ariminum. 

7. Sabarie. 38. Granisca. 

S. Carnunto (Carnuntum). 39. Centum Cellas. 

9. Celeia. 40. Aquas-Tuari. 

10. Vindobona. 41. Ancone (Ancona). 

11. Tarsatica. 42. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- 

12. jEmona. vum). 

13. Pola. 43. Aquas- ApoH'maris. 

14. Silvo (Silvium). 44. Snleto. 

15. Parentio (Parentium). 45. Pollentia. 

16. Fonte-Tumaia. 46. Reate. 

17. Aquileia. 47. Castello Firmani (Castrum 

18. Ovilia. Firmar.um). 

19. Altino (Altinum). 48. Ad Sem. Petrum. 

20. Regino (Regina). 49. Roma. 

21. Tndente (Trid«ntum). 50. Hostis (Ostia). 

22. Placentia. 51. Chartagine (Carthago). 

23. Aquas Populoniae. 52. Utica Colonia. 

24. Florentia Tuscorum. 53. Aquis. 

25. Sena Julia. 54. Ipponte Diarito. 

26. Bituriba. 55. Capsa Colonia. 

27. Verona. 66. Ad Medera. 

28. Mantua. 57. Theleote Col. 

29. Mutina. 5¥. Theneste. 

30. Cosa. 59. Sicca-Veria. 

31. Adretio (Arretium). 60. Ad Aquas Caesaris. 

X 



Rivers. 

a. Danubius. 

b. Drinum. 

c. Savum. 

d. Arsia. 

e. Frigido. 

f. Licenna. 

g. Afesia. 
h. Cleusis. 
i. Umatia. 
j. Pad us. 
k. Paala. 
1. Amnio, 
ni. Isex. 



Rivers. 
n. Umbro. 
o. Pallia, 
p. Armenita. 
q. Marta. 
r. Tiberis. 
s. Rubicon, 
t Nelurum. 
u. Malana. 
v. Miso. 
w. Flosis. 
x. Tuma. 
y. Nerninum. 
z. Anio. 



South Part. 

Cihes. Cities. 

1. Ad Pretorum (Prastorium 54. Febraterie. 

in Pannonia). 55. Istonum. 

2. Servitium. 56. Corfinio (Corfinium). 

3. Ad Pretorum (Praetorium 57. Marrubio (Marrubium). 

in Dalmatia). 58. Tres Tabernae. 

4. Mursa Major. 59. Carsulis (Carseoli ?). 

5. Indenea. 60. Ostia iEterni. 

6. Tittoburgo. 61. Pinna. 

7. Ragurio. 62. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- 

8. Siclis. vum, on the Hadriatic). 

9. Salona. 63, Prseneste. 

10. Epetio (Epetium). 64. Roma. 

11. Marona. 65. Hostis (Ostia). 

12. Sirmium. 66. Chartagine (Carthago). 

13. Narona. 67. Maxula. 

14. Tauruno (Taurunum). 68. Ad Aquas. 

15. Ad Matricem. 69. Misua Clipeis. 

16. Singiduna (Singidunum). 70. Gurra. 

17. Epitauro (Epidaurus). 71. Ad Horrea. 

18. Stanedi. 72. Lepteminus (Leptis Minor) 

19. Lissus. 73. Thiforo Col. 

20. Viminatio. 74. Ad Aquas. 

21. Dyrratio (Dvrrachium). 75. Tsparura (Taphrura). 

22. Aulonia (Apollonia). 76. Tacape. 

23. Osa Col. 77. Drepanis (Drepanum). 

24. Sabrata. 78. Lilvbeo (Lilybceum). 

25. Regio(RhegiumcrRegium). 79. Agrigento (Agrigentum). 

26. Caulon. 80. Siracusis (Syracusse). 

27. Lacenium. 81. iEtna Mons. 

28. Castra Minerva?. 82. Messana. 

29. VibonaValentia. Rivers. 

30. Temsa (Tempsa). a. Danubius. 

31. Tarento (Tarentum). b. Drinum. 

32. Brindisi (Brundusium). c. Savum. 

33. Gratie. d. Margum. 

34. Nerulos (Nerulum). e. Genesis (Genusus). 

35. Salerno (Salernum). f. Hapsum (ApBUs). 

36. Nuceria. g. Tanno. 

37. Oplontis. h. Crater. 

38. Benevento (Beneventum). i. Silarum. 

39. Venusia. j. Color. 

40. Neapoli (Neapolis). k. Aveldium. 

41. Capua. 1. Aufidenus. 

42. Cumas (Cumae). m. Larinum. 

43. Sylla. n. Clocoris. 

44. Aeras. o. Sannum. 

45. Pretonium Laucrianum. p. Cremera. 

46. Siponto (Sipontum). q. Nernum. 

47. Esernie. r. Arno. 

48. Teano Scedicino (Teanum s. Tiberis. 

Sidicinum). t. Safo. 

49. Sinuessa. u. Vulturnus. 

50. Minturnis (Minturnse). v. Himera. 

51. Fundis (Fundi). w. Niranus. 

52. Terracina. x. Ausere. 

53. Ferentinum. y. Gerin. 

18. Plate IX. (Page 62.) Symbolic Repre- 
sentations of the Seasons. Cf. P. I. $ 191 a ; P. 
IV. $188. 2; P. II. $ 105. 

19. Plate IX a. (Page 80.) View of Athens, 
from the foot of Mt. Anchesmus; reduced from 
Hobhouse's Albania. Cf. P. I. $ 105. 

20. Plate X. (Page 82.) Mythological Illus- 
trations.— Fig. 1. Saturn; cf. P. II. $ 14-17 — 
Fig. 2. Cybele ; cf. P. II. $ 19-21.— Fig. 3. Pluto ; 
cf. P. II. $ 32-34.— Fig. 4. Vulcan ; cf. P. II. 
$ 51-54.— Fig. 5. Neptune : cf. P. II. $ 29-31.— 
Fig. 6. Venus, with attendants ; cf. P. II. $ 47- 
49 —Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. II. $ 38-40— Fig. 8. 
Bacchus; cf. P. II. $ 57-60. 

21. Plate XI. (Page 92.) Mythological Il- 
lustrations.— F\g. 1. Juno; cf. P. II. $ 26-28.— 
Fig. 2. Mercury ; cf. P. II. $ 55, 56.— Fig. 3. Ju- 
piter ; cf. P. II. $ 22-25.— Fig. 4. Apollo ; cf. P. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



XI 



II. $ 35-37.— Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. II. $ 61-64.— 
Fig 6 Minerva; cf. P. II. $ 41-43— Fig. 7. Mars; 
cf. P. II. $ 44-46— Fig. 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. $ 18. 
—Fig. 9. Cupid ; cf. P. II. $ 50— Fig. 10. Vesta ; 
cf. P. II. $ 65-67. 

22. Plate XII. (Page 97.) The Hindoo 
Triad. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4. 

23. Plate XIII. (Page 103.) The Avatars 
of Vishnu. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4 ; $ 37. 2. 

24. Plate XIII a. (Page 111.) Festival of 
Juggernaut. Cf. P. II. $ 59. 4. 

25. Plate XIV. (Page 121.) Mythological 
Illustrations.— Fig. 1. Sol, as represented on a 
coin of the Rhodians ; cf. P. II. $ 71-72— Fig. 2. 
Nox, as represented on a gem; cf. P. II. $ 76. 
—Fig. 3. Luna; cf. P. II. $ 73.— Fig. 4. Hebe; 
P. II. $ 27.— Fig. 5. Flora ; cf. P. II. $ 90. 4 it.— 
Fig. 6. iEsculapius; cf. P. II. $ 84.— Fig. 7. 
Pan ; cf. P. II. $ 79.— Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope ; 
cf. P. II. $ 95— Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P. II. 
$ 86.— Fig. 10. Victoria ; cf. P. II. $ 93.— Fig. 11. 
Concordia; cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 12. Pax, or 
Peace ; cf. P. II. $ 95. 

26. Plate XV. (Page 124.) Representations 
from the Mac Table. Cf. P. II. $ 96. 

27. Plate XV a. (Page 138.) Table of Greek 
and Roman Deities classified. Cf. P. II. $ 9, 10. 

28. Plate XVI. (Page 140.) Crowns, Gar- 
lands, c^c— Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Roman crowns or 
wreaths, bestowed as military rewards. Fig. 

6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. III. $ 284. 1.— Figs. 

7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands received by vic- 
tors in the games ; cf. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233.— 
Fig. A. Plan of a Gymnasium or Palaestra after 
Vitruvius, as given in Barthelemif s Anachar- 
sis ; cf. P. IV. $ 236.— Fig. B. Victorious cha- 
rioteer; cf. P. III. $ 233— Fig C. A golden 
crown found in Ireland ; cf. P. III. $ 34. 

29. Plate XVII. (Page 155.) Military Wea- 
pons, 4*c For particulars, see P. III. $$ 45, 137, 
283. 

30. Plate XVIII. (Page 161.) Tombs and 
Sepulchral Remains.— Figs. 1, 2, 3. Tomb of Cy- 
rus, Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid of Cestius ; 
cf. P. III. $ 187. 5.— Fig. 4. Gales of a tomb; cf. 
P. III. $ 187. 5.— Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatory 
and unguentary vases; cf. P. III. $ 341. 7. — 
Fig. B. "Egyptian Psychostasy, or weighing of 
the soul; cf. P. II. $ 34b. 4.— Fig. e. Funeral 
couch ; cf. P. III. $ 340. 1.— Fig. hh. Coffin and 
urns, &c. ; cf. P. III. $ 341. 6. 

31. Plate XIX. (Page 166.) Oracle of Tro- 
phonius. Cf. P. III. $ 74. 

32. Plate XX. (Page 168.) Representa- 
tions of Priests and Priestesses presenting Liba- 
tions and Sacrifices. Cf. P. III. $ 24, $ 221. 

33. Plate XXI (Page 179.) Temples.— 
Fig. 1. Parthenon; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. IV. 
$ 234. 3, P. I. $ 107.— Fig. 2. Temple of the 
Winds; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 110.— Fig. 3. 
Temple of Theseus; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 109. 
— Figs, a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h, Ground-plans of the 
different kinds of temples ; cf. P. IV. $ 234. 2. 

34. Plate XXII. (Page 195.) Various Arti- 
cles of Armor. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Helmets; cf. 
P. III. $ 45. — Figs, r, s. Mail and breastplate ; 
cf. P. III. $ 45, 139.— Fig. u. Greaves; cf. P. 

III. $ 44, 45.— Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian warriors; 
cf. P. III. $ 45.— Fig. 3. Persian warrior; cf. 
P. III. $ 45— Fig. 4. Trophy ; cf. P. III. $ 150.— 
Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with an armor-bearer; 
cf. P. III. $ 283.— Fig. 6. Egyptian- archer; cf. 
P. III. $ 45, $ 288. 1.— Fig. 8. Soldier in com- 
plete mail; cf. P. III. $283. 

35. Plate XXIII. (Page 201.) Naval Illus- 
trations. — Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat for rapid 
moving; cf. P. III. $ 304.— Fig. 2. Vessel from a 
painting at Pompeii; cf. P. III. $ 304.— Fig. 3. 
Liburnian galley; cf. P. III. $ 304— Fig. 4. 
Merchant vessel; cf. P. III. $ 155.— Fig. 5. 
War-galley; cf. P. III. $ 155.— Fig. A. Hexi- 
reme as explained by Holwell ; cf. P. 111. $ 155, 
156.— Fig. B. Views of the relative position of 
the rowers, according to the explanations of 



some ; cf. P. III. $ 156.— Figs, a, b, c. Different 
forms of prows : cf. P. III. $ 155. 3, 4. 

36. Plate XXIV. (Page 205.) Pertaining 
to Household Affairs. — Fig. 1. Plan of a Grecian 
house; cf. P. III. $171. 1.— Fig. 2. A Grecian 
key; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 3. Young man 
wearing the petasus ; cf. P. III. 169. 3. — Fig. 4. 
A bride sitting with a mirror held before her; 
cf. P. III. $ 169. 6. $ 171. 2.— Figs. 5 and 10. 
Grecian sofas; cf. P. 111. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 6. Pe- 
culiar head-ornament, worn in oriental coun- 
tries; cf. P. III. $ 34.— Fig. 7. Grecian lady, 
from Boyd's Potter; cf. P. III. $ 169. 5 ; $ 171. 2. 
-Figs. 8, 9. Chairs; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2. $ 52.— 
Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various forms of coverings for 
the feet; cf. P. III. $ 169. 2; $ 336. 

37. Plate XXV. (Page 211.) Costume.— 
Figs, a, b, c, d, Modern Egyptian and oriental 
dresses; e, f, Greek Bacchantes, g, an Egyp- 
tian spinner; h, i, Grecian female fluters ; k, 
Grecian lady in the more ancient costume; m, 
peculiar head-dress; n, o, Egyptian princess 
and priestess in transparent garments ; y, w, 
veils and head-dresses. See P. HI. $ 169. 5. — 
Fig. 1. A box worn on the neck; cf. P. III. 
$ 337.— Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Egyptian 
monuments ; figs. 3, 4, toilet-table and mirror; 
cf. P. III. $ 338. 

38. Plate XXV a. (Page 215.) Tables of 
Grecian Moneys, &c. Cf. P. III. $$ 173-177. 

39. Plate XXVI. (Page 219.) Musical In- 
struments. For particulars see P. III. $ 180. 

40. Plate XXVI a. (Page 224.) Tabular 
view of Civil Institutions of Athens , Cf. P. III. 
$$ 97-116. 

41. Plate XXVII. (Page 231.) Altars and 
Sacrificial Apparatus. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various 
articles as given in Montfaucon; fig. A. including 
1, 2, &c, articles drawn from sculpture at Pom- 
peii; fig. B, representation of a sacrifice, from 
the same source; cf. P. III. $ 206.— Fig. C. Sa- 
crifice to Bacchus ; cf. P. III. $ 205. 1 ; $ 67.— 
Fig. D. Sacred utensils from Egyptian re- 
mains ; cf. P. III. $ 206. 2— Figs. E, H, Altars ; 
cf. P. III. $205. 1. 

42. Plate XXVIII. (Page 236.) Priests and 
Priestesses. Cf. P, III. $ 219; P. II. $ 67 m; 
P. V. $ 16. 

43. Plate XXIX. (Page 240.) The Suove- 
taurilia, from an ancient bas-relief. Cf. P. III. 
$ 221. 2. 

44. Plate XXX. (Page 245.) Gladiatorial 
Contests. — Fig. 1, two andabata or horsemen; 
fig. 2, a horseman and footman (cf. P. III. 
$ 283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on foot; fig. 5, 
wounded bull; fig. 6, two secutores and two 
retiarii : see P. III. $ 235. 2, 3.— Fig. 7. Plan of an 
amphitheatre at Pompeii; cf. P. III. $ 239. — 
Fig. n. ADacian horseman in scale-armor; cf. 
P. III. $ 283. 

45. Plate XXXI. (Page 255.) Pertaining 
to topics noticed under the head of Roman Civil 
Affairs. — Figs. 1 and 3. Roman fasces, and 
Egyptian scepters; cf. P. III. $ 240. 1.— Figs. 2 
and 9. Roman official chairs; cf. P. III. $ 255. 
2.— Figs. 4, 5, 6. Chariots ; cf. P. III. $ 269. 3.— 
Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight ; cf. P. III. 
$ 270. 1— Fig. 10. Sedan ; cf. P. III. $ 255. 2.— 
Fig. A, a kind of stocks; fig. B, the Mamertine 
prison at Rome ; cf. P. III. $ 264. 1. 

46. Plate XXXII. (Page 265.) Pertaining 
to Household and Agricultural Affairs. — Fig. 1, 
plan of a Roman house; figs, a and b, a key 
and bolt from Pompeii; cf. P. III. $ 325. 6.— 
Fig. c, Egyptian door; cf. P. IV. $ 231. 1.— Fig. 
d, Couch ; fig. E (including 1, 2, 3, &c), Lamps : 
cf. P. III. $ 325. 7.— Fig. ii. Roman plow; fig! 
iii. Syrian plows; figs. iv. 6, 7, instruments 
for threshing ; figs. 5, 8, sickle, pruning-knife, 
&c. See P. III. $ 269. 2. 

47. Plate XXXlIa. (Page 269.) Tables of 
Roman Moneys, tf-c. Cf. P. III. $ 271, $ 274. 

48. Plate XXXIII. (Page 273.) Armor, Mi- 
litary Standards, $c. — Figs. 1 and 2. Legionary 



Xll 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



soldiers with shield and sword, baggage, &c. 
cf. P. III. $ 283— Fig. 3. A Medo-Persian, from 
sculptures at Persepolis ; bearing a sort of ham- 
mer, or battle-ax, probably a token of some 
military rank, perhaps however of some civil 
office ; the two hands of another are seen bear- 
ing the same token ; fig. 4, another from the 
sculptures at Persepolis, with a sword and 
other accouterments. Cf. P. IV. $ 171.— Figs. 
A, B, C, &c. A variety of standards and flags ; 
cf. P. III. $ 282. 1.— Fig. E. Part of the tri- 
umphal procession represented on the Arch of 
Titus ; cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2. 

49. Plate XXXIV. (Page 279.) War-en- 
gines, Roman Camp, fyc. — Fig. 1, testudo ; fig. 2, 
vinem ; 3, movable tower; 4, 5, 10, battering- 
ram ; 6, scorpio; 7, balista ; 8, pluteus; 9,falz 
muralis ; see P. III. $ 299.— Figs, a, b. Archer 
and slinger; cf. P. III. $ 288. 1.— Fig. P, plan 



of a consular camp; R, sectional view of the 
agger and fossa ; see P. III. $ 297 1. 

50. Plate XXXV. (Page 301.) Pertaining 
to Feasts and the use of Wine. — Fig. 1. Plan 
and view of a triclinium found at Pompeii ; cf. 
P. III. $ 329. 2.— Fig. 2, carriage and vessel for 
transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera, used in 
libations ; cf. P. III. $ 331 b.— Fig. 4. Two per- 
sons interchanging the pledge of hospitality ; 
cf. P. III. $ 330. 3.— Fig. 5, a Bacchanal revel- 
ing alone, taken from remjiins at Pompeii ; fig. 
6, a wine press, from Egyptian monuments ; 
fig. 7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cast ; figs. 
a, b, c, d, e, f, &c, various cups and vessels ; 
cf. P. III. $ 331 b. 

51. Plate XXXVI. (Page 302.) Monumen- 
tal Structure, dedicated to the Dii Manes ,* Re- 
presentations of Death, S^c. Cf. P. II. $$ 76, 83, 
110, 113. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from 
the author and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section 
always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always 
denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered 
so as to differ more or less from the original. All the matter in the largest of the 
four sizes of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as 
may have one or the other of those marks. All the matter in the smaller type is added 
by the translator, with the following exceptions: (1) sections or paragraphs having 
the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Eschen- 
burg; and (2) part of the mere references to books and authors, a majority perhaps 
of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not seem of much con- 
sequence to discriminate carefully between those given by the author and those 
introduced by the translator; if any one should find some of them irrelevant or un- 
important, he may safely charge such upon the translator rather than Eschenburg. 

In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one 
place to another ; and the division into Parts, sections, and sub-sections, all sepa- 
rately numbered, makes the reference very easy; thus, e. g. the abbreviations cf. P. III. 
§ 182. 4. direct the reader to the paragraph numbered 4, under section 182, in Part 
III. Instead of the word see, or the abbreviation v. (for the Latin vide), the abbre- 
viation cf. (for the Latin confer) is commonly used. In order to facilitate the turn- 
ing to any passage, the number of the Part is continued as a sort of running title 
on the top of the even or right-hand page ; in following the reference above given, 
e. g. the reader will first turn to Part III., denoted by P. III. seen at the top of the 
right-hand page; then, under that Part, will look for § 182; then, under that sec- 
tion, look for the paragraph numbered 4. Whenever the section to which a reference 
is made belongs to the same Part with the section in which the reference is made, 
the abbreviation for the Part is omitted ; thus, e. g. the abbreviation cf § 3, occurs 
on p. 40 in § 136 of Part I., and it directs the student to § 3 of the same Part I. In 
some instances, a subsection is itself divided ; thus, cf. P. III. § 268. 4. (c), directs to 
the paragraph marked (c), under the subsection 4. in § 268, of P. III. The references 
made to the Plates need no explanation, except the remark that the abbreviation Sup. 
always indicates one of the Supplemental Plates, contained in a separate volume. 

A copious Index was essential to accomplish the design of this book; and in order 
to secure greater copiousness, and at the same time give the student the advantage 
of a very obvious and useful classification, four distinct Indexes are furnished at the 
close of the work : an Index of Greek Words ; an Index of Latin Words ,• a Geo- 
graphical Index ,- and a General Index,- besides which, the Contents (in a systema- 
tic view prefixed to the body of the work) are exhibited so fully, that the inquirer 
may easily ascertain in what section any topic is noticed. When one seeks informa- 
tion on a particular point from this volume, he is requested not to conclude that it 
contains nothing on the subject, until he has carefully examined the Indexes, the 
Statement of Contents, and the Description of Plates. 



PART I 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 




— oi eo J >o to 



EPITOME OE CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of the neighboring coun- 
tries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were within a few 
hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition furnishes a still 
stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described as having departed by the 
Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules ; 
whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that there was a 
connection between the Palus Masotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. In those early 
ages the earth was supposed to be a great plain, and the ocean an immense stream, 
which flowed around it and thus returned back into itself {dipoppoos). 

In later times, however, the commercial enterprise of the Athenians corrected these errors. 
Their ships sailed through the seas to the east of Europe and brought home such accurate infor- 
mation, that we find the description of these seas and the neighboring coasts nearly as perfect in 
ancient as in modern writers. — The expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the Anabasis 
of Xenophon (cf. P.V. $243), and stili more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opportunities of 
becoming acquainted with the distant regions of the east.— The west of Europe was visited and 
described by the Phoenicians, who had penetrated even to the British Islands. 

$ 2. All the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients was embodied, 
in the second century after Christ, in two principal works by Claudius Ptolemy ; one 
styled MsydA/7 "Sivra^is, and the other TecoypacbtKfi 'Ypfiyno-ts. From the latter we de- 
rive our chief information respecting the limits of the ancient world, and the attain- 
ments of the Greeks and Romans in geography. (Cf. P. V. §§ 206, 207, 216, 218, 
480—483.) 

§ 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an imperfect 
sketch of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched deserts of Africa 
prevented their advance to the south ; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known 
world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these limits 
were perfectly known ; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there 
were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name. 

Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth 
that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Ferro, one of the Insula Fortuvatce 
(Canary Islands), which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy 
for his fixed meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British Isles and 
the Shetland Isles; the latter are probably designated by the Thule of the ancients, according 
to d'Anville, although some have supposed it was applied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles 
the line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably: perhaps around the North Cape, as 
it has been thought that this must be the Rubeas Promontorium of Ptolemy. The line would, in 
either case, be continued to the White Sea at the month of the river Dwina, which seems to be 
described by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it would extend to the Ural Moun- 
tains, which were partially known by the name of Hyperborei ; near which the poets located a 
people of the same name {Virg. Georg. i. 240), said to live in all possible felicity. From these 
mountains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern part of the Belur Tag 
mountains, the ancient Tmaus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Kashgar (in Chinese Tar- 
t-ry), called by Ptolemy Casio Re<jio ; a region of which, however, he evidently knew little. 
Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera; which is most pro- 
bably the modern Kan or Kan-tchenu, near the north-west corner of China and the termination 
of the immense wall separating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must be carried over 
a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thynm in the country of 
the Since; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the Senus, which is supposed to 
be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterly 
point (that is particularly mentioned) is thought to be Point Condor, the southern extremity 
of Cambodia ; this was called the Promontorium Satyrorum. and some small isles adjacent In- 
sula; Satyrorum, because monkeys were found here, whose appearance resembled the fibled 
Satyrs. The general ignorance respecting this region is obvious from the fact, that it was ima- 
gined, that beyond the Promontory of Satyrs the coast turned first to the smith, and then com- 
pletely to the west, and thus proceeded until it joined Africa. From the point or cape just 
named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Aurea Chersonesus, or peninsula of 
Malaya or Malacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jabadii Insula, and pass to 
Taprobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence sweeping around the Maldives, called by Pto- 

3 



4 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

lemy Insula ante Taprobanatn, and crossing the equator, it would strike Africa at Cape Delgrado, 
supposed to correspond to the Prasum Promontorium, being about 10 degrees S. latitude. The 
boundary would exclude Madagascar, as the ancient Menulhias designates, not Madagascar as 
has been conjectured, but most probably the modern Zanzibar. It may be impossible to trace 
the line across Africa; of the interior of which the ancients knew more than one would suppose, 
judging from the ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line would pass south of the 
Mountains of the Moon, Luna Monte.s, which are mentioned by Ptolemy ; and also, in part, of 
the river Niger, which, as d'Anville remarks, was known even in the time of Herodotus. On 
the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Ann's, about 
10 degrees N. latitude: this point answering to the ancient JVoti Cornu, Southern Horn, off 
against which lay the islands called Insula Hesperidum. From this cape our line passes up the 
shore of the Atlantic to the Insula Fortunata. 

From this it is obvious, that the portion of the earth known to the ancients was small in pro- 
portion to the whole. It has been said, with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one-third 
of the land, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square uyfes : and of 
the 155 millions of square miles of xoater, covering the rest of the globe, they knew almost no- 
thing. 

On the knowledge of the ancients respecting the earth, Class. Journ. v. 103. ix. 133. For the principal helps in studying Clas- 
sical Geography, consult the references given in P. V. § 7. 7 (b) ; see also P. V. §§ 206-208, 371 ss. — On the history of Geography, 
cf. P. IV. § 27. 

§ 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is 
of very ancient date ; but although the names have been preserved, the boundaries 
in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned among the Asiatic 
kingdoms : at present it is esteemed part of Africa : Sarmatia was esteemed part of 
Europe : a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia. 

§ 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the ancients 
believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat 
of the Torrid and the extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal life. 

Another division, introduced by Hipparchus, was that of climates. A climate is a space in- 
cluded between two parallels of latitude, so that the longest days of the inhabitants at one 
extremity exceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were 
known. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexandria in 
Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and 
the British Islands. 

NOTE. — In studying this Epitome, it is indispensable to success that some Atlas should be used. That of Butler is very suitable 
for the purpose. The editor of this Manual has it in contemplation to prepare an Atlas adapted to the Epitome of Geography here 
presented.— The student need not commit to memory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of the 
countries or provinces included in the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, tracing every thing, as far as possible, 
on his maps. For recitation, let the Teacher question him on the maps of the Atlas, or ou large maps in mere outline, prepared for 
(he purpose, which will be far better. 



I. OF EUROPE. 



§ 6. Europe, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most import- 
ant division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and 
sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed 
over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its name from Europa, the 
daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician king, who being carried away, according to the 
mythological tales (P. II. § 23), by Jupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her 
name to this quarter of the globe. 

§ 7. The boundaries of ancient Europe were nearly the same as those of modern 
Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of 
Europe. The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it 
on the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is 
traced by ancient writers ; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the Palus 
Maeotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus, Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, Propontis, Helles- 
pont, and iEgean sea ; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic ocean 
the western boundary. 

§ 8. The countries of the mainland of Europe may be arranged, for convenience, 
in the present geographical sketch, in three divisions ; the northern, middle, and 
southern. The islands may be considered in a separate division. — — The north of 
Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients until the unwearied 
ambition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new conquests in lands previously 
unnoticed. From these countries, in after times, came the barbarian hordes who 
overran Europe, and punished severely the excesses of Roman ambition. — The 
southern division contains the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most dis- 
tinguished in Europe for their civilization and refinement. 

The Northern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the follow- 
ing ; Scandinavia, Norway and Sweden; Chersonesus Cimbrica, Jutland, or Den~ 



P. I. EUROPE. NORTHERN COUNTRIES. O 

mark; Sarmatia, Eussia ; Germania, Germany. — The Middle countries were 
the following: Gallia, France and Switzerland; Vindelicia, Suabia ; Rhjetia, 
country of the Grisons ; Noricum, Austria ; Pannonia, Hungary ; Illyricum, 
Croatia and Dalmatia ; Mjesia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria ; Dacia, Transylvania 
and Walachia. — In the Southern division we include Hispania, Spain and Portu- 
gal ; Italia, Italy; Thracia, Macedonia, and Gr^ecia, all lately comprehended 
under the Turkish Empire. 

I. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

§ 9. Scandinavia, or Scandia, hy the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely supposed 
to be a large island. The inhabitants were remarkable for their number and ferocity ; 
they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country came the Goths, 
the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the Normans, who subjugated the 
south of Europe. 

§ 10. The Chersonesus Cimbrica, a large peninsula at the entrance of the Baltic, 
was the native country of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after devastating Gaul 
invaded the northern part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the safety of 
their capital. They defeated the consuls Manlius and Servilius with dreadful slaugh- 
ter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius. 

$11. Sarmatia included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is frequently 
confounded with Scythia. This immense territory was possessed by several inde- 
pendent tribes, who led a wandering life like the savages of North America. The 
names of the principal tribes were the Sauromatse, near the mouth of the Tanais, 
and the Geloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and the Borysthenes. The latter 
were called Hamaxobii from their living in wagons. Virgil gives them the epithet 
pied, because they, like the savages of America, painted their bodies to give them- 
selves a formidable appearance. — From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and 
Roxolanians, who aided the barbarians formerly mentioned (§ 8) in overthrowing the 
Roman empire. 

The peninsula, now known by the name of the Crimea, or Crim Tartary, was 
anciently called the Chersonesus Taurica. Its inhabitants, called Tatiri, were 
remarkable for their cruelty to strangers, whom thev sacrificed on the altar of Diana. 
From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was called Euxine (favorable 
to strangers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The principal towns of the Tauric 
Chersonese were PanticapcBum (Kerche), where Mithridates the Great died; Saphroe 
(Procop), and Theodosia (Kaffa). — At the south of this peninsula, was a large pro- 
montory, called from its shape Criu-Metopon, or the Ram's Forehead. 

$ 12. Ancient Germany, Germania, is, in many respects, the most singular and 
interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, and the 
accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, the origin of the 
English language and constitution may be distinctly traced. The inhabitants called 
themselves JFer-men, which in their language signifies War-men, and from this 
boasting designation the Romans named them, with a slight change, Ger-men. 
The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately ascertained, but the name is 
generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the 
Baltic Sea and the Danube. 

$ 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia, possessed by several tribes, of whom 
the principal were the Hermiones and Suevi, who possessed the middle of Germany. 

The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. The 

chief of these were the Frisii, through whose country a canal was cut by Drusus, 
which being increased in the course of time formed the present Zuyder Zee ; the 
Cherusci, who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions of Quintilius 
Varus ; the Sicambri, who were driven across the Rhine "by the Catti, in the time of 
Augustus ; the Catti, the most warlike of the German nations, and most irreconcila- 
ble to Rome ; the Marcomanni, who were driven afterwards into Bohemia by the 
Allema.nni, from which latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allemagne. 

Near the Elbe were the Angli and Saxo?ies, progenitors of the English, and the 

Longobardi, who founded the kingdom of Lombardy, in the north of Italy. The 
nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii, steadfast allies of the Romans ; the Mar- 
comanni, who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine ; the Narisci 
and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during the reign of Marcus 
Aurelius. 

§ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses was 
forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, forts built by 

the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives A great part of Germany 

was occupied by the Hercynian forest, which extended, as was said, nine days' jour- 
ney from south to north, and more than sixty from west to east. A portion of the 
Sylva Hercynia is now called the Black Forest, which still has its fabled terrors. 

$ 15. The largest river in the northern division of Europe was the Eha, now Wolga. 
It was called Atel or Etel by the Byzantine writers (P. V. § 239a) and others in the 

a2 



6 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

middle ages.. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with more water formerly than now, 
into the Mare Caspium. It was in part the eastern boundary of Europe, separating 
Sarmatia from Seythia.' — '1 he river next in size was the Borysthenes, called in the 
middle ages Danapris, whence its modern name Dnieper. Just at its entrance into 
the Ponlus Euxinus, it was joined by the Hypanis, calledin the middle ages Bogus, and ' 
now the Bog. The long narrow beach at the mouth of the Borysthenes was called 
Drcmus Achillei. — Between the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Tanais, the 
present Don, which separated Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, and flowed 
into the Palus Maoris or modern sea of Azof ; near its mouth was a city of extensive 
commerce, called Tanais Emporium. The strait connecting the Palus Maeotis with 
the Euxine was called Bosphorus Cimrnerius. — Another river discharging into the 
Pontus Euxinus, was the Tyras, the modern Dniester : it flowed between Sarmatia 
and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boundary of what is included in our 
northern division of Europe. — Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyras, 
flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus Codanus ; they were the 
Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal streams discharging 
into the Oceanus Germanicus were the Albis, Elbe, and the Rhenus, Rhine, which 
formed the western boundary of the division of Eurooe now under notice, dividing 
Germania and Gallia. 

II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE MIDDLE OF EUROPE. 

§ 16. We will begin with Gallia, which is at the western extremity of the division. 
The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalpina, to distinguish it from 
the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The Greeks gave it the name 
of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, to distinguish it from Galatia in Asia 
Minor, where the Gauls had planted a colony. 

Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flanders, Hol- 
land, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its boundaries were the 
Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the 
Pyrenees. — The country, in the time of Julius Caesar, was possessed by three great 
nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. Of these the Celtce were the 
most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached from the Sequana, Seine, to the, 
Garumna, Garonne ; the Belgce lay between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where 
they united with the German tribes ; the Aquitani. possessed the country between 
the Garumna and the Pyrenees. 

§ 17. Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces ; Gallia Narbonensis, Aqui- 
tania, Gallia Celtica, and Belgica. 

Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea- 
coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps ; including the territory of the modern provinces, 
Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the prin- 
cipal of which were the Allobroges, Salyes, and Volcae. The principal cities were 
Narbo Martius, the capital, (Narbonne) ; 3Iassilice (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian 
colony, from Phocaea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii (Frejus) ; Aqucs Sextiaz (Aix) ; and 
Nemausus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grandeur of its still existing 
remains. 

Among the interesting monuments at Nismes are, the Square House, and the Arena; the latter being an amphitheatre, or circus, 
of the Doric order, with walls composed of enormous masses of stone united with wonderful skill, 1200 feet in circumference, capable 
of holding, it is said, 16,000 or 17,000 persons ; the former, a temple, 76 feet long, 38 broad, and 42 high ; adorned with 30 beautiful 
Corinthian columns. (Cf. Seynes and Menard, cited P. IV. § 243. S.—Millin, Voyage dans les Departments du Midi.) 

Aquitania extended from the Pyrenees to the Li ger (Loire). The principal 
nations were the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pictones, and 
Lemovices, north of that river. The chief towns were Mediolanum (Saintes) ; 
Portus Santonum (Rochelle) ; and TJxettodunum. 

Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — The 
country along the coast was called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce 
and warlike.— -The principal nations were the Segusiani, iEdui, Mandubii, Parish, and 
Rhedones. The principal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius . 
Plancus after the death of Julius Caesar ; Bibracte, called afterwards Augustodunum 
(Autun) ; Alesia (Alise), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms of Caesar ; and 
Portus Brivates (Brest), near the Promonlorium Gobceum (Cape St. Malo). 

Lutelia Parisiorum (Paris) was built by the Parisii, on a swampy island, before the time of Christ, but was of no importance 
until A. D. 360, when the Emperor Julian went into winter quarters there, and erected a palace for himself. 

The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. This contained 
a great number of powerful states ; the Helvetii occupying that part of modern Swit- 
zerland included between Lacus Lemanus (the lake of Geneva) and Lacus Briganti- 
nus (the lake of Constance) ; the Sequani, possessing the present province of Franche 
Comte ; and the Batavi, who inhabited Holland. — 'That part of Belgic Gaul adjoining 
the Rhine below Helvetia was called Germania, from the number of German tribes 



P. I. EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. 7 

who had settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, the part nearer the 
sources of the Rhine, and Inj 'trior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal 
of these tribes were she Trcveri, Ubii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country of the 
Treveri was the extensive forest Arduenna (Ardennes), traces of which still remain. 

§ 18. The principal mountains of Gaul were Cebenna (the Cevennes), in Langue- 
doc ; Vogesus (the Vauge), in Lorraine ; and Alpes (the Alps). — The Alps were 
subdivided into Alpcs Marilimxz, joining the Etruscan sea ; Cottice, over which Han- 
nibal is supposed to have passed ; Grceca, so called from the passage of Hercules ; 
Pennine, so called from the appearance of their tops (from prima, awing) ; R/iceticce, 
joining Rhagtia ; Norica, bordering Noricum ; .Pannonicce ; and Julia, the eastern 
extremity, terminating in the Sinus Flanalicus (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. 

The chief rivers of Gaul were Rhenus (the Rhine); this river, near its mouth, at 
present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the Newlssel ; the 
last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the ancient mouth of 
the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked up by some concussion of- 
nature not mentioned in history ; Rhodanus (the Rhone), joined by the Arar (Saone) ; 
Garumna (Garonne), which united with the Duranius (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), 
joined by the Elaver (Allier) ; and Sequana (the Seine). 

The principal islands on the coast of Gaul were Uxantos (Ushant) ; TJliarus (Oleron) ; 
Coesarea (Jersey) ; Sarnia (Guernsey) ; and Riduna (Alderney) ; on the south coast 
were the Stoschades or Ligustides insula, (isles of Hieras). 

$ 19. The government of ancient Gaul, previous to the Roman invasion, was aristocratical, 
and so great was their hatred of royalty, that those who were even suspected of aiming at sove- 
reign power, were instantly put to death. The priests and nobles, whom they called Druids 
and knights, possessed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ; 
in most of the states an annual magistrate was elected with powers similar to those of the Ro- 
man consul, but it was ordamed that both the magistrate and the electors should be of noble birth. — 
In person, the Gauls are said to have been generally fair-complexioned, with long and ruddy 
hair, whence their country is sometimes called Gallia Cumata, or Hairy Gaul. In disposition 
they are described as irascible, and of ungovernable fury when provoked ; their first onset was 
very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with equal steadiness. 

$ 20. The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in obscurity; we 
only know that it must, have been very populous from the numerous hordes who at different times 
emigrated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They seized on the north of Italy, which 
was from them called Cisalpine Gaul ; they colonized part of Germany; they invaded Greece; 
and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where, mingling with the Greeks, they seized on a pro- 
.vinc.e, from thence called Galatia or Gallo-Gra?cia.— Another body of Gauls, under the command 
of Brennus, seized and burned Rome itself ; and though they were subsequently routed by Camil- 
lus, the Romans ever looked on the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, and designated a 
Gallic war by the word Tumultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war. 

$ 21. The alliance between the people of Massiliae (Marseilles) and the Romans furnished the 
latter people with a pretext for intermeddling in the affairs of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced. 
The first nation whom they attacked was the Salyes, who had refused them a passage into Spain; 
the Salyes were subdued by Caius Sextius, who planted a colony called after his name, Aquae 
Sextiae; about four years after, the greater part of Gallia Narbonensis was subdued by Qnintus 
Martius Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Martius, and made it the capital of the Roman 
province. — After the subjugation of Gallia Narbonensis, the Gauls remained unmolested until 
the time of Caesar, who after innumerable difficulties conquered the entire country, and annexed 
it to the Roman dominions. 

Though grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the emperors made rapid advances in civilization ; they 
are particularly noticed for their success in eloquence and law. A curious circumstance of the mode in which these studies were 
pursued is recorded by many historians; an annual contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished were com- 
pelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of the victors, or else be whipped and plunged into the 
Arar.— See Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 22. The country called Vindelicia was situated between the sources of the 
Rhenus (Rhine), and the Danubius or Ister (Danube). Its chief town was Augusta 
Vindelicorum (Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, pre- 
sented by Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the 
Reformation). — Between Vindelicia and the Alps was Rh^tia, containing rather 
more than the present territory of the Grisons. Its chief towns were Curia (Coire), 
and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assembled.— -Vindelicia 
and Rhaetia were originally colonized by the Tuscans, and for a long time bravely 
maintained their independence. They were eventually subdued during the reign of 
Augustus Caesar, by Drusus the brother of Tiberius. 

§ 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by the river 
JEnus (Inn). Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the Roman terri- 
tories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. The iron of 
Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country were highly valued. 
— East of Noricum was Pannonta, also subdued by Tiberius. It was divided into 
Superior, the chief town of which was Vindobona (Vienna); and Inferior, whose 
capital was Sirmium, a town of great importance in the later ages of the empire. — 
Noricum is now called Austria, and Pannonia, Hungary. 

$ 24. The boundaries of Illyricu:t have not been precisely ascertained ; it occu* 



8 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

pied the north-eastern shores of the Adriatic, and was subdivided into the three 
provinces of Istria, Lxburnia, and Dalmatia. It included the modern provinces, 
Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — The chief towns were Salona, near Spalalro, where 
the emperor Dioclesian retired after his resignation of the imperial power; Epidaurus 
or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Ragusa. 

The Illyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with which they treated their 
captives ; they possessed great skill in ship-building, and the light galleys of the Liburnians con- 
tributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actiurn. — The Romans declared war against the 
Illyrians, in consequence of the murder of their ambassadors, who had been basely massacred by 
Teuta, queen of that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg a peace on the most humiliating 
conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they were finally subdued 
by the praetor Anicius, who slew their king Gentius, and made the country a Roman province. 

§ 25. Mcesia lay between Mount Hcemus (the Balkan) and the Danube, which after its 
junction with the Savus was usually called Ister. It was divided into Superior, the 
present province of Servia, and Inferior, now called Bulgaria. Part of Mcesia Supe- 
rior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian tribe ; next to which was a district 
called Dardania ; that part of Mcesia Inferior near the mouth of the Danube was 
called Pontus, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. 
— The principal cities in Mcesia Superior were Singidunum (Belgrade), at the conflu- 
ence of the Save and Danube ; Nicopolis, built by Trajan to commemorate his victory 
over the Dacians; and Naissus (Nissa), the birthplace of Constantine the Great. — 
In Mcesia Inferior were Marcianopolis, the capital ; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banish- 
ment ; Odessus, south of Tomi, and JEgissus, near which was the bridge built by 
Darius in his expedition against the Scythians. 

§ 26. Dacia lay between the Danube and the Carpat.es, or Alpes Bastarnicce (Carpa- 
thian or Krapack mountains) ; including the territory of the modern provinces, Tran- 
sylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercynia 
(cf. § 14) , stretched over the north and west part of it. Dacia was inhabited by two 
Scythian tribes, the Daci and Getce, who for a long time resisted every effort to deprive 
them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan. 

After having conquered the country, Trajan joined it to Mcesia by a magnificent bridge over the Danube, traces of which still 
exist. His successor, Adrian, influenced either by jealousy of his predecessor's glory, or believing il more expedient to contract than 
to extend the bounds of the empire, broke down the bridge, and left Dacia to its fate. — This country was of considerable importance 
to the Romans on account of its gold and silver mines. In 1807, an interesting monument of Roman writing was found in one of 
these mines. (Cf. P. IV. § 118. 3.) 

A people has been found among the Wallachians, that now speak a languag* very similar to the Latin, and are therefore supposed 
to be descended from the Roman colonists.— Mr. Brewer says he found so many words common to the Latin and the Wall.ichian, 
that by means of the Latin he could converse on common subjects with a Wallachian merchant at Constantinople.— J. Brewer, Resi- 
dence at Constantinople in 1S27, &c. New Haven, 1830. 12.— Cf. Walsh's Journey from Constantinople. 

III. THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF EUROPE. 

§ 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most western 
country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of Spain 
and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, and (to distinguish it 
from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western situation,) Hesperia Ultima. 
The Romans at first divided it into Hispania Citerior, or Spain at the eastern side of 
the Iberus, and Hispania Ulterior, at the western side ; but by Augustus Ceesar, the 
country was divided into three provinces; Tarraconesis, Bcetica, and Lusilania. Like 
the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. 

§ 28. Tarraconensis exceeded the other two provinces together, both in size and 
importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Durius, on the Atlantic, 
and to the Orospeda Mons separating it from Ba?tica, on the Mediterranean ; and re- 
ceived its name from its capital, Tarraco (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani. 

The other principal towns were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whose siege by 
Hannibal caused the second Punic war ; some remains of this city still exist, and are 
called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veteres (old walls) ; Carthago Nova (Carthagena), 
built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Mediterranean: in the interior, 
north-east of the capital, Ilerda (Lerida) , the capital of the Ilergetes, where Cnssar 
defeated Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius ; Numantia, near the sources of 
the Durius, whose inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and, 
when unable to hold out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to 
the conquerors ; Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, among the Celtiberi ; Ccesarea 
Augusta (Saragossa) , capital of the Edetani ; Toletum (Toledo); Complutum (Alcala) , 
and Kibora (Talavera) , in the same district ; Calagurris, in the territory of the Vascones, 
whose inhabitants suffered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war, being reduced 
to such straits, that the inhabitants (as Juvenal says) actually devoured each other. 
Near the modern town of Segovia, retaining the name and site of Segovia among the 
Arevaci, are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto) , at 
the mouth of the Durius, was also called Portus Gallorum, from some Gauls who 
settled there, and hence the name of the present kingdom of Portugal. The north 



P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 9 

of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantabri, a fierce tribe, who for a long time 
resisted the utmost efforts of .he Romans ; their territory is the modern province of 
Biscay. 

$ 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, was called 
Baetica, from the river Bastis. Its chief towns were Corduba (Cordova), at first 
called Colonia Patricia, the birthplace of the two Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in 
this town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Almanzor; 
it is more than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richly ornamented, and supported 
by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble : Hispalis (Seville) ; Ilalica, the 
native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus ; Custulo, called also Parnassia, 
because it was founded by a Phocian colony; all on the Baetis. — The south-western 
extremity of Baetica was possessed by a Phoenician colony, called the Bastuli Pceni, to 
distinguish them from the Libyan Pceni, or Carthaginians; their capital was Gades 
(Cadiz) , on an island at the mouth of the Baetis; near it were the little island Partes- 
sus, now part of the continent, and Junonis Promontorium (Cape Trafalgar) . — At 
the entrance of the straits of Hercules or Gades, stood Carteia, on mount Calpe, which 
is now called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel Tank, i. e. the mountain of Tarik, the 
first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast 
of Africa) were named the pillars of Hercules, and supposed to have been the bounda- 
ries of that hero's western conquests. North of this was Munda, where Caesar fought 
his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. 

L u s i t a n i a, which occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of Portugal, 
contained but few places of note ; the most remarkable were Augusta Emerita (Merida), 
and Olisippo (Lisbon), said to have been founded by Ulysses. 

§30. The principal Spanish rivers were, lberus (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajo) ; Durius 
(Douro) ; Batis (Guadalquiver) ; Anas (Guadiana). — The promontory at the north- 
western extremity of the peninsula was named Arlabrum or Celticum (Finisterre); that 
at the south-western, Sacrum, because the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there ; 
it is now called Cape St. Vincent. 

$ 31. Spain was first made known to the ancients by the conquests of Hercules. In later times 
the Carthaginians became masters of the greater part of the country ; they were in their turn 
expelled by the Romans, who kept possession of the peninsula for several centuries.— Dur- 
ing the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the contending parties. Here 
Sertorius, after the death of Marius, assembled the fugitives of the popular party, and for a long 
time resisted the arms of Sylla: here, Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey, made 
a gallant stand against Julius Caesar; and here, after the death of Pompey, his sons made a 
fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their father's misfortunes. — Upon the 
overthrow of the Roman empire, Spain was conquered by the Vandals, who gave to one of the 
provinces the name Vandalusia, now corrupted into Andalusia. 



% 32. Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both by 
ancient and modern writers, from the beauty of its climate and the fertility of its soil. 
The Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaltered; on the north are 
the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the South the Sicilian strait, and 
on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the country was called Saturnia, 
Ausonia, and (Enotria; by the Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the 
west of their country. 

Italy has always been subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less independent of 
each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two parts, denominated the northern and 
southern; and as the chief city and capital of the country is of such celebrity, shall enter into a 
more particular description of Rome ; adopting the following arrangement; 1. The Geography 
of the northern portion of Italy ; 2. The Geography of the southern portion; 3. The Topography 
of the city of Rome. 

§ 33. (1) Geography of the Northern portion of Italia. The principal ancient divi- 
sions of this part, were Gallia Cisaipina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latium. 

Gallia Cisaipina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting, after the 
Social war, the toga, or distinctive dress of the Romans, lay between the Alps and the 
river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, into Transpadana, at 
the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; these were subdivided into 
several smaller districts. 

North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief town, 
Augusta Taurinorum, is now called Turin ; next to these were the Insubres, whose 
principal towns were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticinus, 
where Hannibal first, defeated the Romans, after his passage over the Alps ; the Ceno- 
manni, possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia); Crzmona; and Mantua, the birth- 
place of Virgil ; and the Euganei, whose chief towns were Tridentum (Trent) ; and 
Verona, the birthplace of Catullus. — Next to these were the Veneti and Carni ; their 
chief towns were Patavium (Padua) , the birthplace of Livy, built by the Trojan Ante- 
nor, after the destruction of Troy ; and Aquileia, retaining its former name but not 
2 



10 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

former consequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to Attila king of the 
Huns. Next to these was the province Histria, or Istria ; chief town, Tergeste 
(Trieste). 

South of the Po where the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua (Genoa), 
on the S)7ius Ligusticus (Gulf of Genoa); Portus Herculis Monad (Monaco), and 
Niccea (Nice); the territory of the Boii, containing Bononia (Bologna); Mutina 
(Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma, and Placenlia; and the 
country of the Lingones, whose chief town was Ravenna, where the emperors of the west 
held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians. 

§34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus (Maggiore) ; Benacus 
(Di Gardi), and Larius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from 
the village Comum, near Pliny's villa. 

The rivers of this province were the Eridanus or Padits (Po), called by Virgil the 
king of rivers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary streams, 
especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mindus (Mincio), falls into the Adriatic; the 
Aihcsis (Adige), rising in the Rhaetian Alps ; and the Rubicon (Rugone), deriving its 
source from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. 

$ 35. The inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hostile to the 
power of Rome; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when he invaded Italy, and in the Social 
war they were the most inveterate of the allied states in their hostility. — When the empire of 
the west fell before the northern tribes, this province was seized by the Longobardi, from whom 
the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number 
of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom was banished 
from the rest of Europe. 

§ 36. E tr uria extended along the coast of the lower or Tuscan sea, from the small 
river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. 

The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria were: the town and port of Luna, 
at the mouth of the river Macra ; Pisce (Pisa) ; Florentia (Florence) ; Portus Herculis 
Leburni (Leghorn); Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeated ; Perusia, near the 
lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal obtained his third victory over the Romans ; Clusium, 
the city of Porsenna ; Vohinii (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the infamous minister of 
Tiberius, was born ; Falerii (Palari), near mount Soracte, the capital of the Falisci, 
memorable for the generous conduct of Camillus while besieging it; Veil, the ancient 
rival of Rome, captured by Camillus after a siege of ten years ; Ccsre, or Agylla (Cer 
Veteri), whose inhabitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from 
the Gauls, in reward for which they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed the 
privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was 
said to be enrolled among the Ccerites; Centum Cellce (Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of 
the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. 

§ 37. The principal rivers of Etruria were the Arnus (Arno) , rising in the Apennines 
and falling into the sea near Pisa ; and the Tiber, which issuing from the Umbrian 
Apennines, and joined by the Nar (Nera) and Anio (Teverone) , running in a south- 
westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome. 

The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, Tyrrheni ; they are said to have come originally 
from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces of their eastern origin, to a very late 
period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of their 
superstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsaying. 
They attained distinguished excellence in art (cf. P. IV. $ 109, 110); interesting monuments of 
which still exist (cf. P. IV. $ 173). 

§ 38. Umbria was situated east, of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which 
it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurus 
(Metro) , where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing 
to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns ; Ariminum (Rimini) , the first 
town taken by Caesar, at the commencement of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro) ; 
Senna Gallica (Senigaglia), built by the Gaili Senones ; Camerinum; Spoletium (Spo- 
letto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at Thrasymene. 

The memory of this repulse is still preserved in an inscription over one of the gates, thence called Porta di Fuga. " Here also is 
a beautif ul aqueduct carried across a valley, three hundred feet high." W. Fiskc, p. 343, as cited P. IV. § 186. 6. 

^5?T"'Ticenum lay to the east of Umbria, on the coastof the Adriatic. Its principal 
towns were, Asculum (Ascoli), the capital of the province, which must not be confound- 
ed with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; Corfinium (San Ferino), 
the chief town of the Peligni ; Sulmo, the birthplace of Ovid ; and Ancona, retaining its 
ancient name, founded by a Grecian colony. 

Close to the harbor of Ancona is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan ; the pillars are of Parian marble, and still 
retain their pure whiteness and exquisite polish, as if fresh from the workmen's hands. The celebrated chapel of Loretto is near 
Ancona. 

South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabini. The for- 
mer were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was Marrubium, on the Lacus Fucinus. 
This lake Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain. It was afterwards partially effected 
by Claudius Caesar, who employed thirty thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a 
passage for the waters through the / mountains, from the lake to the river Liris ; when 



P.I, EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 11 

every thing was prepared for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval 
games, shows, &c; but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, being 
neglected, was soon choked up, and the lake recovered its ancient dimensions. — The 
Sabine towns were Cures, whence the name Quirites is by some derived (cf. § 53) ; 
Reate, near which Vespasian was born ; Amitemum, the birthplace of Sallust ; Crus- 
tumerium, and FidencB. Mons Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome retired in their 
contest with the patricians, was in the territory of the Sabines. In these countries were 
the first enemies of the Romans, but about the time of Camillus the several small states 
in this part of Italy were subjugated. 

§40. Latium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the Tuscan 
sea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was called Latium, from lateo, to lie hid, 
because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethroned by Jupiter. 

The chief town was Rome (see § 51 ss). Above Rome on the Tiber, stood Tibur 
(Tivoli), built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the Roman 
nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country seat (P. III. § 326) : south of Rome, 
Tusculum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modern times, for the salubrity 
of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have been built by Tele- 
gonus, the son of Ulysses; near it was Cicero's celebrated Tusculan villa: east of 
Tusculum, Pr&neste (Palestrina), a place of great strength both by nature and art, 
where the younger Marius perished in a subterranean passage, while attempting to 
escape, when the town was besieged by Sylla : south of Tusculum, Longa Alba, the 
parent of Rome, and near it the small towns Algidum, Paedum, and Gabii, betrayed to 
the Romans by the well-known artifi.ce of the younger Tarquin. — On the coast, at the 
mouth of the Tiber, stood Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, built by Ancus Martius; 
south of this were Laurentum, Lavinium (built by iEneas and called after his wife La- 
vinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Camillus resided during his exile. 
South of these were the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Romans; their 
chief cities were Antium, where there was a celebrated temple of Fortune ; Suessa 
Pom.etia, the capital of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans; and Corioli, from 
the capture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. 

South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled residence 
of Circe ; Anxur (Terracina), on the Appian Way ; the town and promontory Caieta, 
deriving its name from the nurse of iEneas, who was there interred ; FormicB, near 
which Cicero was assassinated by command of Antony ; and, at the mouth of the 
Liris, Mintumce, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder 
Marius endeavored to conceal himself when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine 
Marshes extended through a great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have 
been made to drain them. The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made 
the surrounding country very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, 
the birthplace of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman ; 
Aquinum, the birthplace of Juvenal ; and Sinuessa, celebrated for its mineral waters, 
originally called Sinope. 

§ 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (Teverone) ; the Allia, on the 
banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaughter ; and the 
Cremera, where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, were de- 
stroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense against the 
Veientes ; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liris (Garigliano), which divided 
Latium from Campania, falls into the Tuscan sea.— The principal lakes were named 
Lacus Albulus (Solfatara), remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations, and the adjoin- 
ing grove and oracle of Faunus ; Lacus Regillus, near which Posthumius defeated 
the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed ; and La- 
cus Albanus, near which was Mount Albanus where the solemn sacrifices called 
Feriae Latina? were celebrated. 

The capital of Latium, in the reign of King Latinus, was Laurentum; in the reign of IEneas, 
Lavinium; in the reign of Ascanius, Longa Alba; but all these were eclipsed by the superior 
grandeur of Rome. The several independent states were subdued by the Romans in the earlier 
ages of the republic. 

§ 42. (2) Geography of the Southern portion of Italia. The southern part of Italy 
was named Magna Grcecia, from the number of Greek colonies that at different periods 
settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, 
and Bruttium. 

C ampania, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extended along 
the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris to the river Silarus, which divided 
it from Lucania. 

The chief city was Capua, so named from its founder Capys, celebrated for its riches 
and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were enervated and corrupted. 
North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral waters in its vicinity, and Vena- 
frum, famous for olives. — South of Capua was Casilinum, where a garrison of Pre- 
nestines, after having made a most gallant resistance, and protracted the siege till 
they had endured the utmost extremity of famine, were at last compelled to surrender ; 



12 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

next to this was Liternum, at the mouth of the little river Clanius, where Scipio Afri- 
canus for a long time lived in voluntary exile. — Farther south was Cumce, founded by 
a colony from Chalcis in'Euboea, the residence of the celebrated Cumean Sibyl, and 
near it the town and promontory Misenum, so named from Misenus, the trumpeter of 
iEneas, who was buried there. — Below the cape were Baice, famous for its mineral 
waters ; Puteoli (Puzzoli) , near which were the Phlegraei-campi, where Jupiter is said 
to have vanquished the giants ; Cirnmerium, whose early inhabitants are said, by Ho- 
mer, to have lived in caves. After these we come to Parthenope or Neapolis (Naples). 
This beautiful city was founded by a colony from Cumae, and for a long time retained 
the traces of a Grecian original ; it was called Parthenope from one of the Sirens said 
to have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain Pausilypus (Pausilippo), 
through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half a mile in length and twenty- 
two feet wide ; neither the time of making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said to 
be that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the villa 
of Lucullus. — At the southern extremity of the Sinus Puteolanus (bay of Naples), 
were Stabice, remarkable for its mineral waters, and Surrentum, celebrated for i;s 
wines ; near the latter was the Promontorium. Surrentinum or Aihenmum (Capo della 
Minerva); east of Naples was Nola, where Hannibal was first defeated, and where 
Augustus died. In the south of Campania was Salemum (Salerno), the capital of the 
Picentini. — Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius were Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. 

The remains of these towns were accidentally discovered in the beginning of the last century, and the numerous and valuable 
remains of antiquity give us a greater sight into the domestic habits of the Romans than could previously be obtained. "Above thirty 
streets of Pompeii are now (1840) restored to light. The walls which formed its ancient enclosures have been recognized ; a mag- 
nificent amphitheatre, a theatre, a forum, the temple of Isis, that of Veuus, and a number of other buildings, have been cleared." 
Houses, shops, cellars, with all their various furniture, are found just as they were when buried under the volcanic mass. — See the 
■works on Herculaneum and Pompeii cited P. IV. § 243. 2.— Cf. P. III. § 329. 

§ 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vulturnus (Vulturno) ; Sebethus 
(Sebeto), now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions of 
Mount Vesuvius ; and the Sarnus (Sarno). — The principal lakes were the Lucrinus, 
which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with 
a volcanic mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre ; and the Avernus, near 
which is a cave represented by Virgil as the entrance of the infernal regions. It was 
said that no birds could pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ; 
whence its name, from a (not) and opvis (a bird). 

Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of different 
barbarous tribes ; at length it was seized by the Saracens in the tenth century. These were ex- 
pelled by the Normans, under Tancred, who founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

§ 44. East of Latium and Campania was S a m ni u m, including the country of the 
Hirpini. — The chief towns were Samnis, the capital ; Benevenlum (Benevento), at 
first called Maleventum, from the severity of the winds, but when the Romans sent 
a colony here they changed the name, from motives of superstition ; near this town 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the assistance of the Samnites, was totally 
defeated by the Roman army, commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caudium, near which 
are the Caudince, Furculcs (Forchia d'Arpaia), a narrow and dangerous defile, in which 
the Roman army, being blocked up by the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to 
surrender on disgraceful conditions ; and Alfenice, remarkable for its manufactory 
of earthenware. — Among the Hirpini, were Equotuticum, whose unpoetical name is 
celebrated by Horace ; Trixicum and Herdonia (Ordonia), onjhe borders of Apulia. — 
Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of Amsanctics, surrounded by hills, and re- 
markable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs ; on a neighboring hill 
stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, whence 
the valley is now called Moffeta. 

§ 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were-the Sabatus (Sabato), and Color (Ga- 
lore), both tributary to the Vulturnus. 

The Samnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many years 
contended with the Romans for the empire of Italy; at length, after a war of more than seventy 
years, during which the Romans were frequently reduced to great extremities, the fortune of 
Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. 

§ 46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now La Puglia, occupied the 
greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta- 
rentum. 

Its chief towns : Teanum, named Apulum to distinguish it from a town of the same 
name in Campania; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after his return from 
the Trojan war ; north of Arpi is Mount Garganus (Saint Angelo) , in the spur of the 
boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; "east of Arpi were Uria, which gave the 
ancient name to the Sinus Urius, and Sipontum (Manfredonia, which gave to the Sinus 
Urius its modern name, Gulf of Manfredonia) ; on the borders of Samnium stood 
Luceria, celebrated for its wool; Salapia (Salpe) ; and Asculum, called Apulum, to 
distinguish it from a town of the same name in Picenum.— -Near the river Aufidua 



P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 13 

stood the village of Cannes, where Hannibal almost annihilated the power of Rome ; 
through the fields of Cannae runs the small stream Vergellus, which is said to have 
been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a 
bridge to Hannibal and his soldiers; Canusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of 
the Roman army were received after their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), near Mount 
Vultur, the birthplace of Horace; Barium (Bari), where excellent fish were caught in 
great abundance ; and Egnatia, on the Matinian shore, famous for bad water and good 
honey. 

The principal A pulian rivers were Cerbalus (Cerbaro), and Aufidus (Ofanto), remark- 
able for the rapidity of its waters ; both falling into the Adriatic. 

§ 47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is 

called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were 

Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed 
in the fifteenth century; from this the Italians who wished to pass into Greece gene- 
rally sailed; Hydruntum (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; 
Castrum Minerva (Castro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called 
Capo Santa Maria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tarentum (Tarento), 
built by the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudia, the 
birthplace of the poet Ennius ; and Callipolis (Callipoli), built on an island and joined 
to the continent by a splendid causeway. 

The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of 
Tarentum. 

§ 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to the bay of 
Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the empe- 
ror Basil; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to 
perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost, 

The principal towns on the Mare Tyrrhenian (Tuscan sea), were, Laus, on the 
river of the same name flowing into the Sinus Laus (Gulf of Policastro) ; Buxentum, 
called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; Velia or Elea, the birthplace of Zeno, 
the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, that built Marseilles 
(cf. § 17): in the vicinity of Elea, near Mount Alburnus (Postiglione, or Alburno), 
P&slum, called by the Greeks Posidonia, celebrated in ancient time for its roses, in 
modern for its beautiful ruins. 

On the ruins of Pxstum, cf. Eustace, as cited P. IV. § 190. 1.— Winckdmann, Histoire, &c, vol. iii. as cited P. IV. § 32. 4.— De- 
lagardette, Les Ruines de Passtum, cited P. IV. § 243. 1. 

In the interior of Lucania, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus ; Aternum, on the Silarus ; 
3-rumentum, on the Aciris ; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the 
framer of the Trojan horse. — 'On the shore of the Sinus Tarentinus (Tarentine bay), 
were Metapontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and 
the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of 
the Italo- Grecian states used to assemble ; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infamous for 
its luxury ; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own 
city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourishing 
cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave 
behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural re- 
mains contribute to the melancholy of the scene, by recalling to memory the days of 
former greatness. 

The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negri), which, after sinking 
in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and uniting with 
the Silarus falls into the Sinus Pastanus (Gulf of Salerno) ; Melpus (Melfa), which 
empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro, so called from the number of 
ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanus, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into 
the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agri), and the Sybaris (Coscile), small streams on the 
Tarentine coast. 

§ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-tellus or 
B r ut ti um, but is now called Calabria-ultra. — 'The principal cities of the Bruttii, on 
the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, who waged war in 
Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; Consentia (Cosenza), 
the capital of the Bruttii; Terina, on the Sinus Terinceus (Gulf of St. Eophemia) ; 
and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). — On the Sicilian 
strait, were the town and promontory Scyllceum (Scylla), whose dangerous rocks gave 
rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf. P. II. § 117); opposite to the celebrated 
whirlpool Charybdis on the coast of Sicily : Rhegium (Reggio), so named by the Greeks, 
because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, and 
broken off here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony from 
Chalcis, in the island of Eubcea, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its 
fertility ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape L,eucopelra, so named from 
the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell' Arnai. 

On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes ; Crotona, founded by 
some Achaeans on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras established his 

B 



PLATE I. 




PLAN OF ANCIENT ATHENS. 
(According to that given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis.) 




7. Porta Capena. — - 
Porta Triura- 
phalis. 

9. Aqua Claudia. 
10. Aqua Ajjpia. 
! I. Aqua Marcia. 

12. Aqua Julia. 

13. Aqwa Virgo. 

a. iElian Bridge. 

'>. Triumphal Bridge 

•; .Tanictilensian Brid° 

d. Bridge of Cestus. 

■ Bridge of Fabricius. 

f Palatine Bridge, 

g. Sublicia.u Bridge. 



PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. 
(As published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 



P. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 15 

celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for their skill in athletic 
exercises, that it was commonly said <l the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the 
Greeks"; south of this was the Promontorium Lacinium, where a very celebrated 
temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the 
remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacasum 
(Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon 
(Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus; south 
of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the Promontorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the 
Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy.— The cape at the 
southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Herculis, now Spartivento. 

The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Neoethes -(Neti), which 
received its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to 
prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. 

$ 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who, 
on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects, 
and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually 
devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at different times, and under various 
leaders, sought to obtain, in a foreign country, that tranquillity and liberty that had been denied 
them at home.— These different states were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an 
annual congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclea, and 
united the several communities in one great confederacy. 

Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, it was destroyed 
by the jealousy of the people of Crotona ; the Sybarites did not yield to despair; five times they 
rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced 
to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurium.— The Crotoniates did not Song 
preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their city, and 
they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. — To secure their superiority, the Locrians 
entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable 
influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder Dionysins to secure to himself a pari 
of the country by building a wall from the Terinsean gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the in- 
gratitude of the younger Dionysins, gave them a distaste for the connection. — After breaking 
off their alliance with the Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans ; during the 
war with Pyrrhus, they 'adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity; 
but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined 
Hannibal.— It is remarkable, that in all the other Itato-Grecian states the people embraced the 
Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division 
of parties was directly the contrary. 

The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by riches and 
luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epinis, to 
secure their city from the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian 
campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command 
of Milo, who betrayed the citv to the Romans. 

After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su- 
periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods 
of the Roman empire. 

§ 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in 
the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of 
Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by 
Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — The 
Gates (Porta) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were 
thirty-seven ; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most 
noted; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Ccelimontana, Latina, Capena, Fla- 
minia, Ostiensis. 

For a plan of ancient Rome, see our Plate I., from which the reader may learn the position of many of the important objects 
about to be noticed. 

$ 52. Thirty-one great Poads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via 
Sacra, Appia, JEmilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roadc "issuing from the 
Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the fron- 
tiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called 
Milliarium aureum(Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were 
reckoned. " This curious monument was discovered in 1823." Butler's Geogr. Class, 
p. 39.) 

" They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded 
in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all 
the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest, 
stones, mixed with cement, statumen ; the middle, gravel or small stones, rudera, to prepare a 
level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consisted 
of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighborhood of 
cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margines, protected by curb-stones, which defined 
the extent of the central part, agger, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that, no water 
might lie upon it."— "The public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united 
the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object had 
been to facilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, 
and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their 
extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses' were every where erected only 
at the distance of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, 
and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the Roman 



1G CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those who claimed it by an imperial mandate ; but 
though originally intended fur the public service, it was sometimes indulged to the business or 
conveniency of private citizens." — Dr. Robinson noticed three Roman mile-stones on his route 
(in lHUfc!) from Tyre to Beirut in Syria; one of them, "a large column with a Latin inscription 
containing the names of Septimius Severus and Pertinax." Traces still exist of a Roman 
road leading from Damascus to Petra, and thence even to Ailah. The most ancient and cele- 
brated of all the Roman Via; was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. 
It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended 
from Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. At Sinuessa it 
threw off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to Baise, Neapolis, Her- 
culaneum, and Pompeii. 

N. Bergier, Hist. Jes grands chemins des Romains. Par. 1792. 2 vols. 4. — WAnville, on the extent of ancient Rome and the grand 
roads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxx. p. 198.— E. Robirison, Bibl. Res. vol. iii. p. 415, 432; vol. ii. p. 562, as 
cited § 117. 

§ 53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed through the 
city from the north ; Pons Milvius ; JElius, still standing; Fabricius ; Cestius ; Pa- 
latinus or Senatorius, some arches of it still remaining ; Sublicius or JEmilius ; Jani- 
cularis, still existing ; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. 

Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or hills. 
These were Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquilinus, Ccslius, Aventinus, Quirinalis, 
Viminalis. 

The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, 
on the Mons Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors 
usually abode, and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely 
dwelling. The hill first added was probably the Quirinalis, on which it has been supposed was 
a Sabine settlement called Quirium; this addition beitig made when the union was formed be- 
tween the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the name 
of Quirites. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union. 
Next was added the hill Cozlius, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted. 
The other four hills were successively added, at least before the close of the reign of Servius 
Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hilts on the north of the Tiber were also connected with the 
city. The Janiculum was fortified by Ancus Martins, fourth king of Rome, as a sort of out-post, 
and joined to the city by a bridge. The other, the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from the predic- 
tions uttered there by soothsayers, vates, was added at a later period ; it was rather disliked by 
the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St. 
Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, called also 
Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian. 

On the side of the Capilolmc hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, (in his PMlos. of Travel, cited P. IV. 
§ 190) " of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such terrific colors by Seneca, immei.sx altitudinis aspictus, only thirty feet 
of its summit now overlook the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern hovels." — The spot was 
visited in 1829 by two American gentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom writes, " after very cautious estimates we both judged 
the original height to have been about SO feet, of which about twenty may be filled up, leaving about 60 for its present altitude." 

$ 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Augustus 
there were fourteen. The last division is followed by -most topographers, and affords 
the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of notice in the city. The 
names of the districts were as follows; 1. Porta Capena ; 2. Ccelimoutium ; 3. Isis and 
Serapis or JMoneta ; 4. Templum Pads or Via Sacra ; 5. Esquilina cum turri et colle 
Viminali ; 6. Alta S emit a ; 7. Via Lata ; 8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Flaminius ; 
10. Palatium; 11. Circus Maxynus ; 12. Piscina Publica ; 13. Aventinus; 14. Trans 
Tiber im. To describe only the most remarkable objects in each region or district would 
trespass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of 
them. 

A tabular statement of the objects included in the fourteen regions is given in KenneWs Antiquities, ch. ii. as cited P. III. § 197. 2. 

See G. C. Adieus ausfJrliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Altona, 1781. 4. with engravings. The basis, mainly, is the 

arrangement of Sextus Rufus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. (Cf. Grseuii Thesaurus, vols. 3 and 4.) 
Nardini's Italian original was published anew by A. Nibby, Rome, IS20, 4 vols. 8. with plates.— Descrizione di Roma Antica forma 
novamente con le Autorita di Bart. Marliani, Onof Panvinio, &c, with plates. Rom. 1697. 2 vols. 4.— C. Fea, Nuova descrizione 
di Roma antica e moderna. Rom- 1820. 3 vols 8. with plates. — C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities of Rome. Oxf. 1821. Transl. 
into German by Sichler, Weim. 1823. 8.— Venuti, Descrizione topografiadelle antichita di Roma. ed. by Visconti, 1S03, with PialVi 
Notes. Rom. 1824. 2 vols. 4.— Burgess, Topography and Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8.— Ficoroni, Vestigia di Roma. 
—Plainer, Bunsen, Gerhard, and R'fstell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Tubing, and Stuttg. 1829-37. 3 vols, with a Bilderheft (or 

Number of plates). — F Blume, Iter Italicum. Halle, 1E36. 4 vols. 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, cf. P. IV. 

§§ 186, 188, 191,226,243. 

$ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the peo- 
ple, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the nineteen 
which are mentioned, the Campus Martius was the largest and most famous. It was 
near the Tiber; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martius, as conse- 
crated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated 
after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent struc- 
tures ; and porticos were erecied, under which the citizens could exercise in rainy 
weather. It was also adorned with statues and arches. Comitia were held here; 
and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. III. § 259), constructed for the purpose. 

§ 56. The main streets of the city were termed vice. On each side were connected 
blocks of houses and buildings ; these being separated by intervening streets and by 



p.I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 17 

lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occu- 
pied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici; of these there were, it is said, 
424. They had particular names; e. g. Vicus alius, jugarius, la?iarius, Tibertinus, 
Juncuis, Minerva;, &c. « 

§ 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the 
transaction of business. All hough at first business of every sort was probably trans- 
acted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it became convenient to 
make a separation ; and the Fora were divided into two sorts, Civilia and Venalia. 
The Roman Fora were not like the dyopai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ; 
the breadth not more than two-thirds of the length ; the difference between the length 
and breadth of the chief Forum discovered at Pompeii is greater. 

Until the time of Julius Caesar there was but one Forum of the first mentioned 
class ; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. 
This gave name to the 8th region (§ 54), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine 
hills ; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius 
Priscus, with porticos, shops, and other buildings. On the public buildings around 
the Forum great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments, so that it 
presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle : here were the Basilica;, Curia;, 
and Tabularia ; temples, prisons, and public granaries : here too were placed nume- 
rous statues (of. P. IV. § 182. 2), with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum 
was the place called the Curtian Lake, where Curtius is said to have plunged into a 
mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side 
were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and 
orators addressed the people ; u'sually called the Rostra, because adorned with the 
beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the 
part of the Forum called the Comitium, where some of the legislative assemblies were 
held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. In or near the Comitium was the Puteal 
Attii ; a puteal was a little space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square, and 
roofed over : such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck 
with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Tribzmal, for hold- 
ing courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure 
marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Lihonis, near which usurers and 
bankers were accustomed to meet {Hor. Sat. ii. vi. 35). The mill iarium in the Forum 
has already been mentioned ($ 52). 

Besides this ancient Forum, there were four others built by different emperors, and designed 
for civil purposes ; the Forum Julium, built by Julius Caesar, with spoils taken in the Gallic war; 
the Forum Jiuo-usti, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latium on one side and 
the kings of Rome on the other; the Forum Nervte, begun by Domitian and finished by Nerva, 
having statues of all the emperors; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all. 

The Fora Venalia were fourteen in number ; among them the Forum Boarium, ox 
and cow market, adorned with a brazen bull; Piscarium, fish market; Olitorium, 
vegetable market ; Suarium, swine market, &c. 

% 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the Capitolium. 
The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifices in the city. It 
was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time to time enlarged 
and embellished. Its gates were brass, and it was adorned with costly gilding ; 
hence the epithets .aurea and fulgens, applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill, in 
the highest part of the city, and was sometimes called arx. The ascent from the 
forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square, extending about 200 
feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides 
with two. — Three temples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitolinus 
in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The 
Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or 
cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the Capitol was also 
the asylum, or place of refuge. 

This celebrated structure was destroyed; or nearly so, by fire, three times; first, in the Marian 
war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly, in the Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Ves- 
pasian ; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Domitian 
with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain ; respecting which there 
has been much discussion. 

See Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. Capitolium, and works there cited. 

§ 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantlieon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in- 
law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or, as its name imports, to all the 
gods (travT&v deaiv). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about 
the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside 
are either solid marble or incrusted. _ The front on the outside was covered with 
brazen plates gilt, and the top with silver plates ; but now it is covered with lead. 
The gate was of brass, of extraordinary size and work. It has no windows, but only 
an opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is 
curiously vaulted, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength, 
3 b2 



18 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

" The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circum- 
ference, and thirty-nine feet in height, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental 
granite, having bases and capitals of white marble." The Pantheon is one of the 
most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda, 
having been consecrated by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and 
all the Saints. 

Dr. Adam, in his account of the Pantheon, says, "they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but 
now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in $ 53, writes, "the 
statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one 
ascends two steps to enter it. Tbe statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true 
four centuries ago. before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place 
under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431."— For a view of the Pantheon, see Plate III. 

§ 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. III. § 203), which 
cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving 
for the public treasury; perhaps thus used because one of the strongest places in the 
city ; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, 
fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, 
among them the Libri Elephanlvni, or ivory tablets containing lists of the tribes. 

The temple of Janus was built, or finished at least, by Numa ; a square edifice, 
with two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of 
war, and shut in time of peace. 

So continually was the city engaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut; first, 
in the reign of Numa; secondly, at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241; three times in the 
reign of Augustus ; the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards, 
once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The 
gates were opened with formal ceremony (Virg. Mw. vii. 707). — For a view of the temple of Ja- 
nus, see Plate VII. 
Sainte Croix, Sur la cloture du temple de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 385. 

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library, 
(P. IV. § 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side 
of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — Besides these, we may name the temple of 
Concord ; of the goddess of Peace (Pari ceternce) ; of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, 
built by Marcellus. 

The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves 
and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves (luci) are enumerated, chiefly 
within the city of Rome. 

§61. The Curia were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated, 
some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of 
the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former 
class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curias ; 
viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallensis, Pompeii, &.C 

The term Curia, as designating an edifice or apartment, seems to have been o'riginally applied to the halls or places where the 
citizens of the respective Curix (cf. P. III. § 219 a. § 251) assembled for religious and other purposes; each of the thirty had its com- 
mon hall or place of meeting. 

The Basilica: were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, 
and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers 
also had rooms for transacting their business. There were fourteen (according to 
some, twenty or twenty-one) of these buildings; among them, Basilica vetus, Con- 
stantiniana, Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicas and the Curiae were chiefly 
around the Forum. 

It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so mueh 
resembled the Basilicx just described. The earliest churches bearing this name were erected under Constantine. He gave his own 
palace on the Ccelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next was 
that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, erected A. D. 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars; it stood 
about twelve centuries, and was then pulled down by Pope Julius 2d, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same name. 
—On the structure of the early Christian churches, see L. Coleman, Antiquities of (he Christian Church. And. 1841. 8. chap. \x. 

§ 62. The Cirri were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to 
fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right 
angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming nearly the shape of an 
ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of seats for the spectators. There 
were eight of these buildings, besides the Circus Maximus, described in another place, 
situated in the vicinity of the Forum. For an account of these, see P. III. § 232. 

The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but 
less in size and cost (cf. P. IV. § 236.) — •Hippodromi were of the same character, and 
seem to have been sometimes built for private use. 

§ 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the purpose 
of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were 
termed theatra (cf. P. III. § 238). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pom- 
pey, of hewn stone, capable of accomodating 40,000 persons ; near this, in the vici- 
nity of the river, were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus ; hence the 



MI 




p. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 19 

phrase applied to them, trio, thealra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows 
were termed Amphitheatre/, (P. III. § 239), of which the most remarkable was the 
Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — The Odea were buildings circular 
in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars, and statues, where trials of 
musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary compositions were exhibited, 
after the manner of the Greeks (P. IV. $ 65). Those established by Domitian and 
Trajan were the most celebrated. 

^ 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were very 
numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called IheimcB. In the time 
of the republic, the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been the first 
to erect warm and hot ones for public use. They were then called ihermce, and 
placed under the direction of the cediles. Agrippa, while he was asdile, increased the 
number of thermee to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than 
800 in imperial Rome. The tliermce Dioclelianiwexe especially distinguished for their 
extent and magnificence (cf. P. IV. § 241. b). Those of Nero, litus, Domitian, and 
especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor. 

§ 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures in which the 
various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequently mentioned 
are the Ludus ISIagnvs, Satutinus, Dacicus, and JEniilius. There were also several 
structures for exhibiting naval engagements, called Naumachice ; as Naumachia Au- 
gusfi, Domiliani. (Cf. P. III. § 233.) 

Finally, there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs, and called Nymphaa; one 
particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and water-falls, and was adorned 
with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. II. $ 101. 

§ 66. The Porticos or Piazzas (porticus) were very numerous. These were covered 
colonnades, adorned with statues, and designed as places for meeting and walking for 
pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; sometimes connected with other 
large buildings, such as basilica?, theatres, and the like. The most splendid was that 
of Apollo's temple, on Mount Palatine; and the largest, the one called Milliaria or 
Milliarensis (i.e. of the 1000 columns). Courts were sometimes held in porticos; 
and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. IV. § 237. 

The city was adorned with Triumphal arches (arcus triumphales), to the number of 
36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (P. IV. § 188). Some of them 
were very magnificent ; as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus, 
and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of a square figure, with a 
large arched gate in the middle, and a small one at the sides. 

§ 67. There were single pillars or columns, columiuB, also erected to commemorate 
particular victories, e. g. those of Duillius, Trajan, and Antoninus. Ruins of the 
first, as has been supposed, were discovered in 1560 (cf. P. IV. § 133. 1). The last 
two are still standing, and are reckoned among the most precious remains of anti 
quity (cf. P. IV. § 188. 2). — 'With great labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt, 
of which those still existing, having been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and 
Constantitis the second, are the most remarkable. 

Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the temples, but 
also in many public places, in and upon Targe edifices. More than eighty of a colossal 
size are mentioned. 

There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, tropcea. These were trunks 
of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils taken from the enemy, 
especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of marble decorated like tro- 
phies still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have been erected by Marius for his 
victories over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. 

§ 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aqu&duclus, should 
be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant supply of water, 
and great expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. There "were 14 of 
the larger sort, besides others of less importance; the Aqua Ajrf>ia, Marcia, Virgo. 
Claudia, Seplimia, and Alsietina, are the most, known. The smaller reservoirs (lacus) 
were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. 

Some of the aqueducts brought water more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountains, 
and over valleys, supported on arches, sometimes above 100 feet high. The care of these origi- 
nally belonged to the a^diles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, calied 
curalores aquarum. 

R. Fabrclli,\)e Aquaaturtibus veteris RomiE. Rom. 16S0. 4. — /. Rondelet, French Translation of Frontinus on the Aqueducts of 
Rome. Cf. P. V. § 491.— F. B. Tower, The Croton Aqueduct ; with an Account of similar Works Ancient and Modern. N. Y. IS43. 

The Cloaca were also works of great cost and of very durable structure. They were a sort of 
sewers or drains, some of them very large, passing under the whole city, and discharging its 
various impurities into the Tiber. Many private houses stood directly upon the cloacae. These 
were under the charge of officers styled curafores cloacarvm. The principal was the Cloaca 
Maxima, built by Tarquinius Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M. Agrippa ; it was 16 feet broad 
and 30 feet high, formed of blocks of hewn stone. The Pantheon (£ 59) was over it. 

See SluarCs Diet, of Architecture, cited P. IV. § 238. S.—Nieluhr's Hist, of Rome, F.ng. Transl. Phil. 1835. vol. i. p. 299. 

§ 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected (cf. P. III. 



20 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§ 341). We may name here particularly the Mausoleum of Augustus, of a pyramidical 
form, 385 feet high, with two obelisks standing near it; the Moles Hadriani ; and the 
Tomb or Pyramid of Cestius (cf. P. IV. % 226, P. III. § 187. 4). 

§ 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosius, to 
48,382, including the domus and the insula ; the former of which classes comprised, 
according to Gibbon, the " great houses," and the latter the " plebeian habitations" (cf. 
P. III. § 325). Among these buildings were some of great splendor, partly of marble, 
and adorned with statues and colonnades. 

1. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Caesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Nero, 
the pabce of Licinius Crassus, Aquilius, Catulus, ^milius Scaurus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c— "The Imperial palace {Palatium) was 
the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon the Palatine hill, and gave name to the tenth region of the city. The front 
was on the Via Sacra, and before it were planted oalts. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesta, and also that of Apollo, which 
Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero burnt 
it, but rebuilt it of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Ccelian and 
Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its limits. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, silver, statues, paint- 
ings, and treasures of every description, that it received the name of domus aurea. The following emperors stripped it of its orna- 
ments ; Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Domitian afterwards destroyed the main building. In the 
reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt ; but it was restored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric it needed 
still further repairs j but this huge edifice subsequently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and 
the Villa Spada." 

2. Before the conflagration of the city under Nero, the streets were narrow and irregular, and the private houses were incom- 
modious, and some even dangerous from their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofty stories. In the time of Nero, 
more than two-thirds of the city was burnt. Of the fourteen districts, only four remained entire. The city was rebuilt with more 
regularity, with streets broader and less crooked (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were measured out, and the height 
restricted to seventy feet. 

$ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive that its neighborhood was almost one 
immense village; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Campagna di Roma, is a complete 
desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martius. The accumulation of ruins 
has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said respecting the 
entrance of the Pantheon ($59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock ($53). 

For notices of Modern Rome, see Piranesi, Vedute di Rouia, 2 vols. fol. (Cf. P. IV. § 243. 2 ) — Rome, in the Nineteenth Century. 
—W. Fisk, as cited P. IV. § 186. 6.—Encyclop. Americana, under Mod. Rome, and under Travels in Italy ; and the works there 
cited 

THRACIA. 

§ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Europe (cf. 
§ 27) ; and we might include the whole under the term Grcecia, taken in a very com- 
prehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover 
not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, 
and even Thracia. The victories of Philip having procured him a vote in the Amphic- 
tyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked 
among the Grecian states. The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured, the 
same honor for Epirus not long after; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dig- 
nity, when it became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Graecia is rarely 
used in so large a sense : and we shall first#consider ancient Thrace separately, and 
include the other countries under Gr&cia. 

Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which separated 
it from Mcesia; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont, 
which divided it from Asia ; on the south by the iEgean sea ; and on the west by the 
river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In consequence of the conquests of Philip, 
the river Nessus became the mutual boundary of Thrace and Macedon, the interme- 
diate district being annexed to the latter country. — The peninsula contained between 
the Bay of Melas and the Hellespont was called Thracia Chersonesus ; celebrated in 
the wars between Philip and the Athenians. 

§ 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was Byzantium, 
or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from 
its beauty Chrysoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a mat- 
ter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlarged and beautified by Constantine the Great, 
who, in the fourth century of the Christian era, transferred the seat of government 
hither from Rome. On the division of the Roman empire, this city became the capital 
of the Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from 
the vices of the inhabitants, and the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the 
Turks on the 29th of May, A. D. 1453. 

On the topography of Byzantium and the changes made by Constantine, see Ducange, Histor. Byzantina. Par. 1680. fol. — G. Co- 
dinus, De Antiquitatibus Cons'antinop. Par. 1655. — Am. Banduri, Imper. Orient, seu Antiquitates Constantinopolitanae. Par. 1711. 
2 vols, fol.— These works are included in the Corpus of Byzantine History, noticed P. V. § 239 a. — Cf. Gibbon, ch. xvii.— Janus 
Dallaway, Constantinople, ancient and modern.— North Amer. Rev. 16th vol. or 7th of New Series, p. 438. 

The other principal towns were, Salmydessus (Midijeh), celebrated for shipwrecks ; 
Thynia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni, who colonized Bithynia in 
Asia Minor; Apollonia, called afterwards Sizopolis (Sizeboli), and Mesembria, built by 



P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRjECIA. 21 

a colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea. — Selymbria (Selibria), and Perinthus, 
or Heraclea (Erekli), on the Propontis. — Callipotis (Gallipoli), at the junction of the 
Propontis and Hellespont ; the small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little 
river JEgos Po tamos joins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysander de- 
stroyed the naval power of the Athenians ; and Seslos (Zenunie), where Xerxes built 
his bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos on the Asiatic side are 
also celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander. 

The possibility of swimming across ihe Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron. — 
On the doubts here alluded to, see De la Name, and Mahudel, as cited P. V. § 49. 4. 

On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into it, were 
Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new town; Lysirnachia, 
that he had built a little farther south ; and Eion, which was burned by its governor, 
Boges. — In the interior were Trajanopolis, built by Trajan; and Adrianopolis, its suc- 
cessful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second city of the Turkish empire. — At the 
east mouth of the Hebrus, stood JEnos, said to have been founded by JEneas, near the 
territory of the Cicones; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his im- 
mense armament after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- 

erous as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nes- 
sus was Abdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the 
stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. 

§ 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated for the 
clearness and rapidity of its waters; Nessus (Nissar), and Sirymon (Jamboli.) — The 
principal mountains were Mount Hcemtis, extending from the Euxine sea in a western 
direction between Moesia and Thrace ; Rhodope, extending from the Euxine sea to the 
sources of the Nessus ; and Pangceics, extending thence to the north of Macedon. It 
was on the Pangmts that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have 
been performed (P. V. $ 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, 
approach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, 
which were defended by walls. — The principal seas and bays adjoining this extensive 
maritime country were, Pontus Euxi?ius, Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis., Hellespontus , 
])Iela?iis Sinus (Gulf of Saros), and Slrymonicus Sinus (Gulf of Contessa). 

$ 75. Thrace was anciently possessed by several independent tribes ; one of these, the Dolonei, 
being hard pressed by the Msynthi, their neighbors, sent to Delphi- to consult the oracle about 
the event of the war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the person who should 
first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hospitably entertained 
by Miltiades, the son of Cypselus; they immediately requested him to accompany them to the 
Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accepted the invitation. — On 
his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians were soon after defeated. He 
fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous 
reign bequeathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stesagoras dying after a short reign, 
his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratidffi as his successor. He had not 
reigned long, when Darius, king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoenicians against the Chersonese, 
and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens. —The Chersonese, after 
the defeat of the Persians, was principally possessed by the Athenians, who colonized all the 
coast. The interior of Thrace remained subject to the native princes, until the whole country 
was united to Macedon by Philip and Alexander. 



76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already remarked 
($ 72), under G rjecia, using this name in what is commonly considered its most 
comprehensive sense (cf. P. III. $2). The extensive region thus included in Graecia 
presents four general divisions, which are obviously suggested by the natural face of 
the country. The 1st is that part which lies north of the chain of mountains called 
Camhunii, which are connected by the Stymphoei Montes with the Aero Ceraunii : the 
2d is the part between the Cambunii on the north, and another line of highlands and 
mountains on the south, which may be traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to 
the Sinus Ambracius on the west; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass of Ther- 
mopylae, and the chain is in this portion of it called CEta; as it stretches back in a 
northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus; this sends down a spur from 
the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Ambracius, where it forms another pass 
corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east : the 3d is the part between the 
mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Co- 
rinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus : and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main 
by that isthmus. The first is Macedonia; the second, Epirus and Thessalia; the 
third, Hellas ; the fourth, Peloponnesus. 

§ 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural divisions above 
described, was bounded W. .by -the Mare Hadriaticum ; N. by Illyricum and iMos- 
sia; E. by Thracia, from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nes- 
tus flowing from Rhodope ; S. by the iEgasum Mare, the Cambunii Montes and the 
other mountains forming the chain already mentioned, which terminates in the Aero 
Ceraunii on the western extremity. 



22 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. Hcemus 
and Mt. lihodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a single 
chain; this was called Orbelus Mo?is ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed running 
down south through Macedonia, and forming a connection with the Siymph&i, or Mons 
Slympha, already named, between the Carnbunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters east 
of this spur flow to the iEgean ; those west of it, to the Hadriatic. 

$ 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo (Drino), which runs through 
Lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called 
Nymphceum Promontorium. — One of the most important places in this western por- 
tion was Apollonia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek 
literature (P. V. § 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the place where Augustus ac- 
quired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy 
of notice, Epidamnus, further north, called Dyrrachium by the Romans, the place 
where travelers from Italy to Greece generally landed. This portion, west of the 
spur, was taken from Illyricum by Philip {Rollin, B. 14. § 1). 

§ 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice three most 
considerable rivers; the Haliacmon (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to 
the Si?ius Thermaicus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising 
in the heights between Macedonia and Mcesia, and running S. to the head of the same 
gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west 
before its discharge ; the Stry?no?i, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus 
Strymonicus (Gulf of Contessa).— Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the 
peninsula sometimes called Chalcidice, and presenting peculiar features, having a 
cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two 
bays, the Toronaicus (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeiicus (G. of Monte Sancto). The 
western of these smaller peninsulas was Pallene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the 
battle between Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151); the eastern was marked by Mt. 
Athos, extending several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated 
for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. 
Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. 

§ 80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are 
not important, even if they Could be accurately traced. Pceonia was in the northern 
part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. The southern 
part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus was Pieria. Emalhia was north of Pieria, 
and of the same gulf. 

Em at hi a was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, the ori- 
ginal capital of the country, on the Erigon ; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequently 
made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus Ther- 
maicus, was Thermce, afterwards called Thessalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment, 
and the capital of the country as a Roman province. 

At Thessalonica there still remains an ancient structure which is supposed by some to have been a Cabman temple (cf. P. II. 
§ 129. 2) ; a vievv of it is given in our Plate V. 

On the peninsula which has been described (§ 79) were Potid&a, or Cassandria, on the 
neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander; Olynthus, memorable 
for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery; Chalcis, which 
gave name to the region; Stagira (Stagros), on the eastern coast, the birthplace of Aris- 
totle. — In Pieria, one of the most memorable places was Pydna (Kitra), where Oiym- 
pias was murdered by Cassander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmilius made 
a prisoner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on the 
coast, was Methane, at the seige of which Philip lost his right eye.— In Edonis were 
two important towns ; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an 
Athenian colony; Philippi, further east, near Mons Pangasus, a branch from Rho- 
dope. 

The latter was built by Philip, for the same purpose for which the Athenians built Amphipolis ; 
to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found in this region. It is celebrated for the battle 
in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Augustus and Antony, B. C. 42; and memorable 
as the place where Paul and Silas, having been "thrust into the inner prison, with their feet 
fast in the stocks, (Jlcts xvi. 25) at midnight sang praises unto God." 

The site of Philippi is still marked by ruins (Miss. Herald, Sept. 1836, p. 334).— Like most of the Grecian cities, it was at the foot 
of a hill or mount on which was its Acropolis A vievv of the Acropolis and of the plain below is given in our Plate IV. A traveler 
on horseback is advancing on the road from Neapolis to Philippi ; he is just passing a modern Turkish burying-ground on his right 
hand under a near hill ; the Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at the right ; at the base of this eminence, was 
the lower city, on the south and south-west ; farther to the south is an open plain ; the mountain on the left is the southern extremity 
of Pang&us. 

$ 81. The kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranus, a descendant of Her- 
cules, B. C. 814 ; but it. did not acquire consequence until the reign of Philip, who ascended the 
throne B. C. 360. It has been stated, that 150 different nations or tribes were finally included 
within its limits. 

$ 82. (2) Epirus and Thessalia, embraced in the second natural division pointed 
out (§ 76), are next to be noticed. 

Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain, embosomed in 



PLATE TV. 




24 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

mountains. The Camhunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pelion and Ossa on the 
east; Pindus on the west ; and CEla on the south: so that only the small portion of 
coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus and the Sinus Maliacus is without the guard of 
mountains ; and even this has a guard a little in the interior, by Mt. Othrys, which 
strikes across from Pindus to Pelion. 

The extensive plains of Thessaly were peculiarly favorable to the breeding of horses ; and the 
Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cavalry, horses having been, at first, only 
used for draught. Hence, perhaps, arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaly, who 
were supposed to have been half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained 
their superiority to a very late period, and to them Philip was indebted for many of his victories. 

§ 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pelasgi, an 
Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first inhabitants of Greece 
(P. IV. § 33). The principal cities in Pelasgiotis were Larissa, the capital of the 
province ; Gomphi, destroyed by Caesar ; Gonnus and Gyrtona, near the entrance of 
the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its natural beauties ; Scotussa, near which are 
some hills, called, from their shape, Cy?ws Cephale, where Philip was defeated by 
Quintus Flaminius ; and Pharsalus, near which, in a plain called Pharsalia, Pompey 

was overthrown by Cassar. The eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia; 

the most remarkable places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same 
name, where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being 
shattered in a storm; Demetrias (Vloo), built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which, 
from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring 
towns; Melibcea, the city of Philoctetes ; Iolcos, the residence of Jason and Medea; 
Pagascs, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgicus is some- 
times called Pagasceus: Aphetce (Fetio), whence the Argonautic expedition sailed; 
Pherce, the residence of the tyrant Alexander; and Thebce, near the river Amphrysus, 

where Apollo fed the herds of king Admetus. -In the southern parts of Thessaly 

were Malia, which gives name to the Maliac bay ; Larissa, called Cremaste from its 
sloping situation, the capital of the kingdom of Achilles ; Alos, at the foot of mount 
Othrys, near which the combat between the Centaurs and Lapithse took place ; Phy- 
lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where the musical con- 
test between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypata, famous for the magical 
arts of its women (Hor. Ep. 5) ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruitlessly besieged by 
the Athenians; and Trachis (Zeiton), celebrated for its desperate resistance when be- 
seiged by the Romans. 

§ 84. The mountains have been mentioned above (§ 82) . The most remarkable 
river was the Peneus , which flows through the vale of Tempe into the iEgean sea. This 
river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules opened a passage for the waters 
between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The principal inlets of the iEgean sea, on the 
Thessalian coast, were Si?tus Pelasgicus or Pagasceus. (Gulf of Volo), and Sinus 31a- 
liacus (Gulf of Zeiton). 

$85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of the first events 
recorded in profane history; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion, and his wife Pyrrha, are said 
to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the human race might be re- 
stored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them ; 
those thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrha women. In this fable the history 
of some partial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. 

The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the 
bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. II. # 127). — Achilles was the most remarkable 
Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle 
had foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy ; to prevent this, his 
mother concealed him at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he 
begat Pyrrhus, or NeoptolemuSj afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last discovered by 
Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of Priam. 

During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta, Thessaly seems to have been of little importance. 
The greater part of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. It was cruelly 
devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian and Syrian kings ; it also suf- 
fered very severely in the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey. 

§ 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often included. 
We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north ihe mountains Cambunii and 
Aero Ceraunii, and on the south, the Sinus Ambracius ; but the region called Orestis 
between the Aero Ceraunii and the river A bus is commonly termed a province of Epi- 
rus ; and Acamania, within the proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as 
another province. In all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus ; 
while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included 
the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 

$87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be 
named from Chaon, the brother of Helenus son of'Priam. These mountains were so 
called from their summits {&Kpa) being often struck with lightning (icepavvos) ; they were 
remarkable for attracting storms, and were dreaded by mariners; the rocks at the west- 
ern extremity of their southern branch, Acro-Ceraunia, were called infamous {infames). 
— The principal towns were Oricum in the extreme north, on the coast between the 



P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRjECIA. 25 

branches of the mountains just mentioned ; and Anchesmus also on the coast and in the 
extreme south of the province. 

Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Sinus Amhracius (Gulf 
of Arta). Its principal places were,Buthrotum on the river Xanthus, near which iEneas 
is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy ; and Ephyraa, on the river Ache- 
ron, flowing to the harbor called Glycys Limen (yXvKig Ai//fj»>). The river Acheron is 
joined at its mouth by the Cocytus. — These two streams were ranked in the ancient 
mythology among the jlumina inferorum, or infernal rivers; three others had the same 
rank ; the Styx, in Arcadia ; the Lethe, in Boeotia probably ; and the Phlegethon, the 
location of which, as an actual river, is unknown, although it is represented sometimes 
as uniting with the Acheron. 

o- Ephyra was subsequently called Cicbyrus ; the ruins of its walls are said to be still visible. — Hughes, Travels in Greece and 
Albania. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. 

M o 1 o s s i s was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. The Mo- 
lossian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. Among the principal towns were 
Ambracia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the river Aracthus or Arethon ; and 
Passaro, where the kings of Epirus took the coronation oath. 

Dodona, famous for its oracle and temple of Jupiter (cf. P. III. % 71), at the foot of 
Mount Tomarus, is placed by some in Molossis ; by others in Thesprotia; it was in the 
Hellopia, not far from the river Thyamis, which rises inMt. Stymphe and flows through 
Thesprotia to the Mare Ionium. 

The French traveler Fouqueville found in Hellopia, in the modern district of Janina, near the village Gardiki, westerly from 
the lake of Janina, some ruins of Cyclopean character, which he judged to be the ruins of Dodona ; including remains of the temple 
of the Dodonean Jupiter and the sacred enclosure of the Selli. — Cf. Pouqaeville, Voyage de la Grece. Par. 1826. 6 vols. 8. vol. i. 
p. 125-197. — Hughes, above cited, vol. i. p. 511. 

$ 88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history until the Macedonian Empire 
was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto been, 
looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Macedonians, began to take a lead in the 
affairs of Greece. — The folly of Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival the 

conquests of Alexander in the east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority. 

On the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian liberty with a 
desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been 
achieved by Paulus iEmilius, enrasred at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to 
be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves ; an instance of atrocious re- 
venge scarcely to be parallelled in history. 

When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Mahometans, the remnants of the Christian forces 
retreated to the fastnesses of the mountains of Suli and the town of Parga in this territory. — The Suliotes, after performing feats of 
valor only to be parallelled in the brighter days of Grecian freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously massacred ; and 
Par^a, after many vicissitudes, fell under the power of Turkey.— For an account of Parga, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. p. 111. 

$ 89. (3) Our third division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. (Eta and 
the large gulfs, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is properly termed 
Hellas, and is also called GRiEciA Propria. 

This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the east are first 
the waters of the Sinus Maliacus, then of the Sinus Opuntius and those between the 
mainland and Eubcea, which are called in the narrowest place Euripus. Leaving these 
and drawing near the southern point. of the country, you enter the Myrtoum Mare, and 
having passed that point, Sunium Promontorium, with the splendid temple of Minerva 
in sight, you proceed up the Sinus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you 
must take a land carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), 
when you reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepanto). — 'This opens into Hellas 
several bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare, and another central 
and opening to the north called Sinus Crissceus (Bay of Salona). — Continuing the sur- 
vey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Corinthiacus through the strait 
called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Ehium on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb 
of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the opposite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and 
continue in the Mare Ionium, till having gone through the artificial channel separating 
Leucas from the mainland, you turn round the Promontorium Actium and enter the 
Sinus Ambracius, which ends the tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not more 
than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, from the Sinus Maliacus, where the ima- 
ginary tour began. 

§ 90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence look down 
upon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number of hills and moun- 
tains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its summits might seem to rise 
up over the country in disorder and confusion, but soon he would trace some obvious 
lines of connection. He would perceive one line of summits stretching from Mt. (Eta 
at Thermopylae down parallel to the eastern coast and to the island Eubcea as far as 
to the strait Euripus. — He would observe another of more lofty and attractive summits 
proceeding from P Indus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliacus and Sinus 
Amhracius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off on its right a 
line of minor summits down to the western extremity of the Sinus Corinthiacus, but 
itself bending to the south-east, and at length verging along the shore of that gulf to 



26 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

its eastern extremity, and there connecting with the Geranii Monies and Mons Oncius 
on the isthmus, and with Mons Cithceron, which proceeds directly east to the sea south 
of the straits of Euripus. — The part of this line joining Pindus includes probably the 
mountains in which the ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first part of the branch which 
it sends off to the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination of this branch at the 
gulf is in the summits called Taphiassus and Chalcis. — In the main line bending to the 
south-east occur first Parnassus, which although of barren soil was celebrated for its 
green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation ; then Helicon, with its fountain 
Hippocrene, which started into existence (according to fable) from the stamping of Pe- 
gasus (cf. P. II. § 117./). — After this, as you turn eastward, appears Cithceron, which 
has a summit in the eastern part, called Parnes.— In the territory south of these, were 
several summits, particularly Pentelicus, famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ; 
Hymetttis, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius, containing 
the silver mines, in the southern extreme of Attica.— Aracynthus was a chain in 
jEtolia. 

§ 91. Hellas contained eight small, but independent provinces or districts. These 
were, beginning on the west, Acamania, JEtolia, Boris, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, Me- 
gar is, Attica. 

The two western districts Acamania and JEtolia were very inferior to the rest in 
fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer aspect than in some 
other districts. 

§ 92. Acamania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabitants were 
noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded {% 76) to the natural 
boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz., the Sinus Ambracius and the spur of 
mountains running from Pindus down to that bay. This line of highlands is now 
called Makrinoros, which name is also given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and 
steep termination near the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylae. The boundary 
between Acamania and the next district of Hellas, JEtolia, is the river Achelous, rising 
among the valleys of Mt. Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. 

Of the places in Acamania, we mention Argos Amphilochius, on the river Inachus 
emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius ; Anactorium, on a peninsula 
forming the north-western corner of the district ; Actium, a little further to the east, on 
the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus gained his great naval 
victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate it, built a town called Nico- 
polis, and instituted, games celebrated every third year, called Actia. — Leucas was on 
the northern point of the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Pelopon- 
nesian war, but after that separated by an artificial channel. On the south part was a 
temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucale, from which the despairing Sappho is said 
to have thrown herself (cf. P. V. § 54). — Stratus, once its metropolis, was on the 
Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo. 

§ 93. M t o 1 i a was east of Acamania, separated by the river Achelous ; it is now 
called Vlakia, from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors gave this pro- 
vince. Its other, chief river was the Evenus (Fideri), falling into the Corinthian bay ; 
this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. 

The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under Mt. Chalcis ; 
associated with the story of the Caledonian hoar (destroyed by the son of the king of 
iEtolia), whose tusks were said to have been preserved in Greece until Augustus carried 
them to Rome as curiosities ; Thermus, the ancient capital, in the interior, or between 
the Evenus and Lake Trichonis. — Naupactus, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, under Mt. 
Taphiassus, was not included in the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this pro- 
vince by Philip of Macedon ; it was said to have its name from vav<; and ttnyw^i, be- 
cause the Heraclidae built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. 

§ 94. D oris, a very small district, lay under Mt. Pindus, between GEta on the east 
and the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus on the south-west and 
being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the south-east ; thus wholly sur- 
rounded by mountains. It was called Doris from Dorus, son of Deucalion, ancient 
monarch of Thessaly. It was a rocky, mountainous region. Its towns were situated 
on the river Pindus, a branch of the Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. 
From its four towns Pindus, Erineum, Boium, and Cytinium, it was called Tetrapolis ; 
and sometimes Hexapolis, the two places Lilceum and. Carphia being added. 

§ 95. Locris consisted of two parts separated from each other.-— The larger part 
was on the Si?ius Corinthiacus, having JEtolia on the west, and Phocis on the east 
(partly separated from it by the Sinus Crissoeus). The inhabitants of this part were 
called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperii and Locri Ozolce. Of the origin of the latter 
name, different accounts are given; the people are said to have disliked the name 

exceedingly. One of their principal places was Amphissa, in the interior, where 

was a temple to Minerva. — Naupactus {% 93) originally belonged to them. 

$ 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of Hellas, on 
the waters separating it from Eubcea. It was north-east of Phocis and Boeotia, divided 
from them by a chain of mountains, and extending from Mount CEta on the north to 



P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 27 

the Platanius., a small river flowing to the channel of Euboea, and separating Locris 

from Bceotia, on the south. This part was inhabited by two tribes. — The Opuntii 

were in the southern region, so called from their principal city Opus, which gave 
name also to the bay adjacent, Si?ius Opunlius, containing a small island, Atalanla. 
The port of Opus, called Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or 
people were the Epicnemidii, so named from Mount Cnemis. On this there was a 
small town of the same name : other places of note were Naryx, the city of Ajax, 
son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Anthela, where the Amphictyonic council assembled 
annually in a temple of Ceres or Thesmophora {the lawgiver) as she was here called, 
in allusion to the council. 

Close to Anthela were the ever- memorable straits of Thermopylae, deriving their 
name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This celebrated 
pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated 
between the ridge of Mount (Eta and the Malian gulf, at the junction of the three 
countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful of men, 
bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather than violate the 
Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king 
of Syria, was defeated by the consul Acilius. 

During the struggles of the modern Greek revolution (cf. P. IV. § 85. 2), two signal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks over 
their Turkish oppressors on the same inspiring spot.— A plan of the pass, illustrating the contest between Leonidas and the Persians, 
is given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis, cited P. V. § 153. 2. 

§97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian 
gulf to the borders of Thessaly. 

The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Philip first 
awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian 
monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi, on mount Parnassus, celebrated for the oracle 
of Apollo (P. III. $ 72), and for the annual meetings of the Amphictyonic council 
(P. III. § 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village called Caslri. Parnas- 
sus (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus ; the 
town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring 
eminence*, close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were 
celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha, on the 
small river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Delphi; 
near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and sometimes the 
whole gulf, was called Crissaeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated for the production of hel- 
lebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, which is sometimes con- 
founded with a river of the same name in Attica. 

« A view of Delphi and the height6 of Parnassus is presented in the Frontispiece of this Manual, as given by Socage, in Barthe- 
lemy's Anacharsis.— A plan of Delphi, with explanations, is found in Dissen's Pindar, voL ii. p. 628, as cited P. V. § 60. 4. 

$ §8. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for the 
common liberties of Greece ; in revenge, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the 
country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by 
earthquakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- 
ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder. About 280 B. C, a large body 

of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated under cir- 
cumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. 

§ 99. Bceotia occupied the north-east of Graecia Propria, on the shores of the 
Eur spies, a narrow strait between the island of Euboea and the continent. 

The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first introduced let- 
ters into Greece (cf. P. IV. $ 45). The city stood on the river Isme?ms, and was 
ornamented with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapylos. It was the birthplace 
of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious 
warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was, from its founder, 
called Cadmea. — South of this was Platasa, where the Persian army were totally 
destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Plateans: it was after- 
wards destroyed by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuc- 
tra, near lake Copais, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas ; Coronea, 
near mount Helicon ; Chceronea, where Philip, having defeated the Athenians and 
Thebans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lebadea, remarkable for the temple 
of Trophonius ; and Orchomenus, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to 
Venus. — Near the Corinthian gulf was Thespice, sacred to the Muses, having a port 
named Creusa; and Ascra, the birthplace of the poet Hesiod. — -On the Euripus were 
Aulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of 
Iphigenia's sacrifice ; Tanagra, where the celebrated poetess Corinna was born ; and 
Delium, a village which derived its name from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation 
of that at Delos, and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved 
the life of his pupil Alcibiades. 

§ 100. The chief mountains of Bceotia were Helicon, with the fountains Aganippe 
and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Phocis, dedicated 



28 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

to the same divinities ; Dirce, near Thebes ; and Citharon, on the borders of Mega- 
ris, sacred to Bacchus. 

The people of Boeotia were usually described as naturally stupid, but with apparently little 
justice; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the barbarous custom of ex- 
posing children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been 
accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. In the heroic ages, Thebes seems to 
have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the 
discovery of the truth is very difficult. It certainly declined in after times ; probably vhe misfor- 
tunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed the 
spirit of the people. 

§ 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight miles square, 
south of mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megara, 
situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far from the 
Sinus Saronicus; its port was Niscea, taken and destroyed by Pericles. The only 
other place of note was Crommyon, near the Scironian rocks : these were said to be 
very dangerous, and to have derived their name from Sciron, a notorious pirate and 
robber. 

§ 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, and south 
of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 miles wide at 
its base on the north, and tapering until it terminates in the point called Sunium, pro- 
jecting into the Myrtoum Mare, east of the Sinus Saronicus (gulf of Engia). It was 
also called Acte (d*rr;) from its maritime situation. The capital was Athens, a more 
full description of which we shall give below. 

.§ 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian in- 
vaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely routed by 
the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. North of this was the village Ehamnus, 
where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy 
of their anticipated victory, was erected to the goddess Nemesis : a little to the east 
was Phyle, a strong fort, which was occupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition 
against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus, where there 
was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was 
AcharnoB, where the Lacedemonians encamped when they invaded Attica; and De- 
celia, which they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens was Brauron, 
where the statue of Diana, brought from Taurus by Orestes, was preserved until 
taken away by Xerxes ; and Sunium, a town and promontory at the south-eastern 
extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva (from the ruins of 
which it is now called Cape Colonna), and is in modern times remarkable as the scene 
of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer. — West of Athens was Eleusis., 
where the Eleusinian mysteries in honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two 
remarkable temples at Eleusis ; that of Ceres and that of TriptolemuS. 

§ 104. Topography of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Cecrops, an 
Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first it was called 
Cecropia, from the name of its founder ; and afterwards 'A$?jvai, Athens, in honor 
of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called 'A-S>5»"}), because she was the pro- 
tectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, it was one of the largest and most 
beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in 
going around it ; according to other and more exact computations, it was about one 
hundred and seventy-eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles ; and 
Dion Chrysostom reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Ro- 
man miles in circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much 
larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles at 
least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. — The number of gates is not 
known ; thirteen are named by Robinson.; the largest was called AtVvAoi>, and was near 
the Ceramicus ; the 'lepa. was that leading to Eleusis. 

For a plan of Athens, see our Plate I., by which the reader may learn the situation of the principal parts and buildings. — The 
description here given, is drawn chiefly from Robinson's Archseologia Graeca. 

§ 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the east to the 
Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Fames on the north, and Hymettus on 
the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus surrounded by natural ramparts, we 
behold the very singular geological feature of six insular mountain rocks standing in regu- 
lar succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend from Pentelicuswestward to 
the sea. The one nearest the sea is called the hill of Musams. On the next is the Acro- 
polis of Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mt. Anchesmus, on the summit 
of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter; from this eminence an observer 
could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — Two streams furnished then- 
waters to the city. One was the Ilissus, which flowed to the east and south of the 
city, and which is supposed, from the appearance of its channel and from the allusions 
of the poets, to have been anciently much larger than it has been seen in modern 

times. The other, Cephissus, was still smaller and ran on the other side. -Athens 

may be described in two parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on the summit of the 



P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 29 

hill termed Acropolis (dKp6zo\i S ), and called the upper city, f] avu 7rdX«s ; and the part 
built afterward, h *droj noXtg, or the lower city. 

The hill or Acropolis, as distinguished from the lower part, is distinctly seen in the View of Athens given in our Plate IX a, on 
page 80 ; which is taken from /. C. Hobhouse's Journey through Albania and other provinces of Turkey, &c. Lond. 1813. 

2 vols. 4. — The Grecian method of thus connecting an Acropolis with their towns, is also illustrated by our Plate IV. cf. § 80. 

§ 106. The citadel, or upper cily, was sixty stadia in circumference, and was fenced 
with wooden pales, or, as some say, was surrounded with olive-trees. It was fortified 
on the south side by a strong wall, which was built by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, 
from the spoils taken in the Persian war, and which was called Kip.djvtov reixos- The 
north wall was built many ages before by Agrolas, or according to some, by Euryalus 
and Hyperbius, two brothers, who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses. 
This wall was denominated IlcXaayiKdv or neXapyiKOP, from the Pelasgi, the name of 
its founders. This wall was beautified with nine gates, from which it is sometimes 
called 'EvveairvXov ; but though there were several lesser gates, there was one grand en- 
trance into the citadel, the JlpoirvXata, to which the Athenians ascended by steps covered 
with white marble, and which was built by Pericles at great expense. Over this en- 
trance is one of those enormous slabs of marble called "marble beams" by Wheeler, 
and to which Pausanias particularly alluded when, in describing the Propykea, he 
says that, even in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship or the 
magnitude of the stones used in the building had ever been seen. 

The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, statues, and 
monuments, on which the ancient stories were fully described. The noble statues of 
Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and other Athenian generals, were here 
intermingled with those of the gods. 

Here was the temple of Minerva, called NiVr/ or Victory, constructed of white mar- 
ble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. 

§ 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately temple of Minerva, called 
Parthenon, because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was 
dedicated by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particularly called irapSevot, vir- 
gins. It was also denominated 'EK<xT6p.ne6ov, because it was one hundred feet square. 
It was burnt by the Persians, but restored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on 
each side. It was of the Doric order, and built of that beautiful white marble found 
in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue 
of Minerva, so celebrated for its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquisite 
beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits 
high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in 
length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. 

A view of the Parthenon is given in our Plate XXI. fig. 1. cf. P. III. § 96. On the bas-relief taken from it by Lord Elgin, cf. P. IV. 
§ 190. On the works of Phidias, cf. P. IV. § 1791 

Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a double 
building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'Epsx-3-E??, which 
was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when 
he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple 
was consecrated to Neptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed lloXias, 
the protectress of the city, and Udv^poa-og, from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that 
name. Here, so late as the second century of the Christian aera, was the sacred olive- 
tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as 
the foundation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said 
to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by 
dragons, called diKovpol 6'0£«?, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl be- 
fore it. The whole structure was called 'Epex^etov. Both these buildings still remain. 
The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 21 feet 

3 inches in breadth. The larger is 63j feet in length, and 36 feet in breadth. The roof 
is supported by channeled Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a. 

Behind the temple of Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its situation was 
called 'OmcSoSonos, and in which, besides other public money, a thousand talents were 
deposited for any very great exigency of the state. 

In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter ^urhp, and of 
Minerva Swrczpa; the temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, or rather of Mi- 
nerva, who was worshiped under that name, in the front and steep side of the rock ; 
and the temple of Venus, 'hnroXvreia, consecrated by Phsedra, when in love with Hyp- 
polytus. 

§ 108. The lower city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the citadel, 
with Munychia, Phalerum, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls of unequal 
strength, built at different times and by different persons. The principal parts of the 
walls were the MaKpa rel^rj, which joined the harbor of Piroeus to the city, and which 
being about five miles in length, were sometimes called Ma*pa ckeXyi, long legs, and 
brachia longa, long arms. They consisted of two sides. The wall on the north side 
was built by Pericles at great expense, and continued forty stadia. That on the south 

c2 



IV a. 




P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 31 

side was called Ntfriov re7x°s> or irapa jiiaov reixrj, to distinguish it from the south wall 
of the citadel, and sometimes reTxos <t>a\ri(w<dv, because it included the port of Phaierum. 
It was built by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not cemented together with mor- 
tar, but fastened on the outside by iron and leaden cramps. The height of it was forty 
cubits, but Themistocles wished to raise it to eighty cubits. Its length was thirty-five 
stadia. Upon both of the walls was erected a great number of turrets, which, after 
the Athenians became so numerous that the city could not contain them, were con- 
verted into dwelling-houses. The Mowvxiov, or wall that encompassed the Munychia, 
and joined it to the Piraeus, contained sixty stadia; and the exterior wall on the other 
side was forty-three stadia in length; and hence it appears, as has been before ob- 
served, that the whole circumference of Athens was 178 stadia, or rather more than 22 
Roman miles, 

§ 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarkable were 
the following.— Uofxireiov was a stately edifice, in which were kept the sacred utensils 
used at festivals, and in which were prepared all things necessary for solemn proces- 
sions. — The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and Minerva, situated not far from the 
Ceramicus within the city, was a public prison. — Near to this building was the temple 
of the Heavenly Venus ; for the Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of 
which one was designated Ovpavia, and the other Ilav&rinos; the former presided over 
chaste and pure love; the latter was the patroness of lust and debauchery. — 'Av&ksiov 
was a temple of Castor and Pollux, who were called avaices. In this place slaves were 
exposed to sale. 

The temple of Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, near the 
place where the youths employed themselves in wrestling and other bodily exercises. 
This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons of low condition that fled 
from the persecution of men in power, in commemoration of Theseus, who, when 
alive, was the guardian and protector of the distressed. 

Speaking of the temple of Theseus, Dr. Clarke observes, that this beautiful Doric temple more 
resembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of Prestum than of Minerva in the Acro- 
polis, and the most entire of any of the remaining structures of ancient Greece, were it not for 
the damage which the sculptures have sustained, may be considered as still perfect. The entire 
edifice is of Pentelican marble ; it stands east and west, the principal front facing the east; and 
it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a range of eleven columns, ex- 
clusive of the columns on the angles. 
A view of this temple is given in Plate XXI. fig. 3. 

§ 110. 'OMnmov, or 'OXvixirelov, wasra temple of Ionic architecture, erected in honor of 
Jupiter the Olympian, and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, or 
peribolus, within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was con- 
structed with double rows of columns, 10 feet in front, and 21 in flank, amounting in 
all to 124 ; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the flank more 
than 400. These pillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and stately temple. 
The foundation of this edifice was laid by Pisistratus, whose sons continued the work ; 
but it was not completely finished till the time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure 
had been commenced. 

The temple of Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the citadel, 
in a cave or grotto, which was called Mtupai terpen, or Kexpotiai terpen.-- The temple 
of Diana, surnamed Avai^uvos, because in it women, after the birth of their first child, 
dedicated their girdles to that goddess. 

IlavSeov was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who, as they were united in one 
edifice, were honored with one common festival, which was called Qeolevta. This was 
also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 pillars of marble. On 
the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story of all the gods ; and on one 
great gate two horses were carved by Praxiteles. 

The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on every 
side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter whence it 
blew. 

The model of this building was furnished by Andronicus Cyrrhastcs, who placed upon the top of the tower a small pyramid of 
marble, upon the summit of which he erected a brazen triton, holding in his right hand a switch or wand. The triton was so placed 

that he turned round with the wind, and pointed with the wand to the wind which blew. A view of this structure is given in our 

Plate XXI. fig. 2. 

§ 111. Zroal, porticos, were very numerous at Athens; but the most remarkable 
was that called UeiaiavaKnos, and afterwards IIoi/aAn, from its containing a variety 
of curious pictures, drawn by those great masters, Polygnotus, Mycon, and Pansenus, 
the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the UoikIXt] was the statue of Solon. — To the 
north of the Acropolis, not far from the temple of Theseus, are the ruins of a struc- 
ture once evidently very splendid, supposed by Stuart to be the ruins of this celebrated 
Stoa or Porch. Some travelers have mistaken them for the remains of the temple of 
Jupiter Olympius already described, which was in the southern part of the city, near 
the fountain Calirrhoe. 

Mavoetov was a fort near the citadel, which received its name from the poet Musoeus, 



32 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, where he was also 
buried. — 'SldeTov was a music theatre, built by Pericles. The inside of this building 
was filled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and the outside roof or covering was gra- 
dually bent downwards. The roof, which was constructed of the masts and yards of 
the vessels taken from the Persians, and in its form resembled the tent of Xerxes, 
was supported by columns of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of 
Athens, but afterwards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated on the south-east angle 
of the citadel. The Odeum of Herodes Atticus has sometimes been confounded with 
that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated at the south-west angle of 
the citadel. This last was built by Herodes in memory of his wife, and was con- 
sidered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its materials, every 
other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of this building was of cedar. 

The Ceramicus (KepaneiKos) received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of 
Bacchus and Ariadne; or more properly d-n-6 t?js KtpajxeXKiqi t£x v is> from the potter's 
art, which was invented here by Coraebus. This extensive space was divided into 
two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contained a great number 
of temples, theatres, porticos, &lc. ; the other was in the suburbs, was a public bury- 
ing place, and contained the Academy, and several other buildings.— The Lyceum 
and the Cynosarges were also in the suburbs on the north-east. 

Respecting the Academy and other Gymnasia at Athens, see P. IV. §§ 64, 74. 

§ 112. 'Ayopai, forums, were very numerous; but the most remarkable were the 
old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'Epsrpia, which it is 
probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was situated in the Cera- 
micus within the city, and was called 'Apxaia dyopa. It was extremely spacious, and 
was decorated with buildings dedicated to the worship of the gods, or to the service 
of the state ; with others which sometimes afforded an asylum to the wretched, but 
which were often a shelter for the wicked ; and with statues decreed to kings and in- 
dividuals, who had merited well of the republic. In it were held the public assem- 
blies of the people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and 
the forum was divided into different parts, according to the wares exposed for sale. 
Thus K-vkXos denotes the place where slaves were sold; 'A^qitSjtojXis dyopa, the bakers' 
market; Ix^ojtwXj? dyopa, the fish-monger's market; TwaiKeia dyopa, the market for wo- 
men' s apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called nM^ovaa dyopa, full 
market, from the great number of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day 
seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the 
inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to main- 
tain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to 
receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superin- 
tend what passed. 

Bov\tvrf)pia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, and deli- 
berated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encou- 
raged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citizen, with living by the 
profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of slander. 

% 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Romans; al- 
though one is said to have been built by Pisistratus. The want of them was supplied 
by wells ((ppeard), some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the pub- 
lic expense ; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels 
arose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which 
was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. 

The stadium was an oblong area, semicircular at one end, designed originally for 
the foot-race, but used for other games and exercises ; and for the accommodation of 
spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each 
other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below 
them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium 
(ErdSiov UavadrivatKdv), erected near the river Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards en- 
larged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen- 
telic marble, with such magnificence that Pausanius did not expect to be credited, 
even in his brief description of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken 
for a mountain of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geo- 
metrical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium, 
a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile. 

§ 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acro- 
polis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. 
P. III. § 108). A space was leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and 
the steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the natural solid stone. There was 
originally neither enclosure nor roof; but merely an altar to Minerva, and two stone 
seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by a 
temporary erection. — The Pnyx, Uvv%, was another eminence, opposite the Areo- 
pagus, not far from the citadel, celebrated as the place where the Athenians 
held their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a 



P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 33 

recent removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The Pfi^a, 
on which the orators stood to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet 
remains. Before this was a semicircular area, of which the part most distant from 
the orator's stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock, 
facing this area, are niches for votive tablets. North-east from the Acropolis, on the 
street of the tripods (cf. § 115), was the Upvravelov, where was a public hall, and where 
the laws of Solon were deposited. Near it was the BovXeTov or senate-house. 

§ 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most celebrated 
was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators. (Cf. P. IV. 
$ 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the 
place where the dramatic contests were decided : it was near the Acropolis, at its 
south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in 
the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, still appears a cavern 
or grotto, formerly termed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of 
chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Choragic monument of 
Thrasyllus ; having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained 
in the theatre. Over this building, and higher up the rock, are the two Columns of 
the tripods, or Choragic pillars. There were several other edifices in Athens, erected 
for the same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acro- 
polis, commonly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, but proved by its inscription to 
be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of the 
tripods, so called from the circumstance that in it were erected (on choragic monu- 
ments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been obtained as 
prizes in the musical or theatrical contests. 

Respecting the dramatic and musical contests above alluded to, see P. IV. § 66.— A view of the Monument of Thrasyllus is given 
in Plate XLIX. fig. C ; and of that of Lysicrates, in the same Plate, fig. A ; the designation Lantern of Demosthenes is said to have 
been applied by the modern Greeks, under the groundless supposition that it was the study of that illustrious orator. 

$ 116. Athens had three harbors for ships: — 1. Ileipaievg, Pirceus, which belonged 
to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city, 
before the building of the iiaKpa reixn or long walls. After that time, the Athenians, 
by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained 
three opixoi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, which being joined together 
formed a very large one, called on that account Maxpa croa. The Piraeus also con- 
tained two forums. Here the productions of all countries were accumulated ; and 
this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hun- 
dred gallies have sometimes been collected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious 
to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by The- 
mistocles when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and maga- 
zines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing neces- 
sary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mowvx'ta, Munychia, which 
was a promontory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, 
and was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person 
called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed Movwxia. 
— 3. QaMpov, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from 
the city 35 stadia, or as some say, only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the 
three harbors ; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus 
for Troy. 

For further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer to the works cited P. IV. § 2.43. I. ; P. V 
§ 7 (b).— We may add Waddington's Visit to Greece.— Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4.— Kruse, Kellas, oder 
Darstellung des alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's pro- 
ceedings (cf. P. IV. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern works illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general. — Cf. Stuart's 
Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture ; cf. also Chateaubriand's Travels, in Introduction. — E. D. Clarke, Travels in 
various countries, &c. Part II. sect. 2. — Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description.— W. M. Leake, Topography of 
Athens. Lond. 1821. with an Atl. fol. Cf. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, vol. iii. p. 183. 
— Wordsworth, Athens and Attica. — Rien&cker, Topographie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). Halle, IS29 ; with 
notes of MUller and Meier.— C. O. MUller, De Munimentis Athenarum, &c. Gott. 1837. 4. with plates.— L. Sergmann, Die 
AllerhUmer von Athen, nach Stuart und Revett, &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates.— HirVs Plan des Athen.— Ensch <§■ Grubcr, Ency- 
clop&die, under Attika (written by MUller).— There is a glance at some of the most interesting objects, in W. Colton, Visit to Con- 
stantinople and Athens. N. York, 1836. 12. ch. 18, 19. 

§ 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, the foiorth division of Grsecia (§ 76), remains to be 
noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the 
interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract of country 
which was called Arcadia. From this circle of elevated summits, various branches 
are sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running out to each of the principal 
promontories ; to Rhium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinthiacus ; to Cheloni- 
tes Prom, on the western side of the peninsula ; to Acritas Prom, west of the Sinus 
Messeniacus ; to Tcenarum, to Malea, and to Scyllcevm, the other points, which occur 
in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were 
fruitful valleys, watered by numerous streams descending from the mountains in 
every direction. 
5 



34 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the con- 
quests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, TtiXonoi vficog ; it was also called 
Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance to a mul- 
berry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry trees that it produces. — It may 
be considered in six divisions : Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laco- 
nia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes added to these ; but they may be included 
under Achaia. 

§ 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole north 
coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth, by which it is joined to Hellas. 
Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent, 
and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united 
in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean league; they were Dyme, Olenus, Pharae, 
Tritaea, Patrcs. (now Palms), Rhype, JEgium the place where the deputies of the 
league met, He lice, Bura, iEge, JEgina, and Pellene. In the resistance to the Ro- 
mans made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially 
Corinth took part. 

It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mummius reduced Greece 
to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole 
country. Cf. $ 213. I. 6. 

§ 120. Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded 
B. C. 2089. — But Corinth has obtained greater notoriety: it was on the isthmus, at 
nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once called 
Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports ; Lechce- 
um, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and Cenchrece, on the Simcs Saronicus. Although 
destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius 
Caesar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and licentiousness. 

The isthmus of Corinth was an imiortant pass. Several attempts have been made, at differ- 
ent periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure of them all, " to cut through 
the Corinthian isthmus" has become a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here 
the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated : and here a stand has 
frequently been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting 
of regular fortification. 

§121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponnesus. Its 
chief town was Argos, on the river Inachus, more celebrated in the heroic than the 
historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his grandfather Acri- 
sius, he transferred the seat of government to Myceim ; this latter city retained its 
power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives, 
through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. — 
North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the 
Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and Tirynthus, a favorite residence of 
Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Sinus Argo- 
licus (Gulf di Napoli) were, Nauplia (Napoli di Romania), in ancient and modern 
times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated 
temple of iEsculapius (P. II. § 84) ; and Trcezene, whither the aged inhabitants of 
Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. 

§ 122. Elis was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea. 

Its chief town was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have pro- 
voked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it 
was on the Peneus (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pisa, de- 
stroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheus (Rouphia or Rufeas), a larger river 
flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olympia, the place near which the Olym- 
pic games were celebrated. 

Olympia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- 
formed. Here was the grove Jiltis, with splendid monuments scattered in it; the temple of 
Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf. P. II. $24); the Cronium or Hill of Saturn; 
also a famous hippodrome and stadium. 

Barthelemy, ch. xxxviii. zs cited P. V. § 153. 2.—Choiseul-Gouffier, Sur l'Hippodrome d'OIympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 
xlix. p. 122. — Disserts Pindar, vol. ii. p. 630, where is a plan with explanations. — Pouquevilk, Voyage de la Grece, vol. v. p. 401. 
— /. S. Stanhope, Olympia, &c. as cited P. IV. § 243. 1. 

§ 123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus; and being entirely de- 
voted to agriculture was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns were Tegcea, the 
capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus, where Hercules destroyed the Harpies, 
on the river Ladon, which flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern 
part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell, near the ruins of which is 
Tripolitza, the metropolis of the Morea; Megalopolis, near the Helissus, a tributary to 
the Alpheus, built by Epaminondas to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemonians. — 
From the ruins oiPhigalia (Paulitza), in the territory of the Parrhasii, were taken the 
bas-reliefs called the Phigalian Marbles (cf. P. IV. § 179, § 183. 4). 

The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets; the principal were 
Cyllene, the birthplace of Mercury ; Erymanthus , where Hercules slew an enormous 



TV b, 




36 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

boar; M&nalus, sacred to the Muses; Parthenius, where Atalanta resided ; Parrha- 
sius and Lycceus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From the hill Nonacris flowed the cele- 
brated river Styx ; its waters were said to be poisonous. 

§ 124. The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, of which 
Miessene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citadel was called Ithome, and 
was supposed to be impregnable ; these were in the interior, west from the Pamisus, 
which is the principal river of the province, and flows from the mountains between 
Messenia and Arcadia into the Sinus Messeniacus. — The other principal towns were 
Pylos, the city of Nestor, now called Navarin ; Methone, where Philip defeated the 
Athenians; and CEchalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. 

The Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lacedaemonians, and the 
greater part compelled to leave the country. Subsequently their city lay long in ruins: but 
when Epaminondas had destroyed the supremacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the 
exiles and rebuilt IVIessene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the country, 
but did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. 

§ 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus was 
Laconia. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the following sections. 

The other towns of note were, Amyclce, on the Eurotas, the residence of Leda; 
Therapne, on the same river, the birthplace of Castor and Pollux ; Gytheum, the prin- 
cipal port of Laconia ; Helos, whose inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans ; and 
Sellasia, where the Achaeans, by the defeat of Cleomenes, liberated the Peloponne- 
sus from the power of Lacedsemon. 

The Sinus Laconicus (Gulf of Colochina) was bounded - by the capes Malea (St. 
Angelo) and Tcenarum (Matapan). Near Tsenarum was a cave represented by the 
poets as the entrance into the infernal regions ; through this Hercules is said to have 
dragged up Cerberus. 

The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops ; but about eighty years after the 
Trojan war, the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and 
became masters of the different kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in 
Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. 

§ 126. Topography of Sparta. The city of Lacedaemon, which was anciently called 
Sparta, is said to have been built by king Lacedaemon, who gave it the latter denomi- 
nation from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and tne inhabitants 
from his own name ; but some think that this city received the appellation of Sparta 
from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus into Laconia. It was situated at the foot 
of mount Taygetus, on the west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic 
gulf. It was of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, 
and was surrounded to a great extent with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, 
and summer-houses. 

Anciently the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was the 
valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the space of eight 
hundred years, this city was without any fortifications ; but after it fell into the hands 
of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were rendered very strong. It had, 
however, some eminences upon which soldiers might be posted in case of an attack. 
The highest of these eminences served as a citadel ; its summit was a spacious plain, 
on which were erected several sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five 
towns, which were separated from each other by intervals of different extent, and 
each of which was occupied by one of the tribes of Sparta. 

§ 127. The great square or forum, 'Ayopa, in which several streets terminated, was 
embellished with .temples and statues. It also contained the edifices in. which the 
senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assembled. Of these public edi- 
fices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians, which the Lacedaemonians 
erected after the battle of Plataea, at the expense of the vanquished, whose spoils 
they shared. The roof of this building was supported by colossal statues of the prin- 
cipal officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and 
who were habited in flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the forum, 
in which assemblies of the people were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of 
the forum, where dances were performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopaedian 
<?ames. 

Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had the privi- 
lege of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house apper- 
taining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hunger. The temple 
was built with brass (K<x\kloikos). Within the building were engraven, in bas-relief, 
the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the right of this edifice was 
a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue of brass in existence ; of 
the same date with the re-establishment of the Olympic games. 

The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the Pcscile, which, instead of 
being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a very considerable 
extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paintings in fresco which had 
oeen employed to decorate the walk. — Farther advanced in the city appeared differ- 



IV c. 




38 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

ent ranges of Porticos, intended only for the display of different kinds of merchan- 
dize. 

$ 128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned at 
the Olympic games ; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their country. 
Statues might be decreed to wrestlers; but the esteem of the people was the only 
reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of Thermopylae, that 
the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near the 
Theatre ; and at the same time also the names of the three hundred Spartans who had 
fallen with him were first inscribed on a column. — The theatre was in the vicinity of 
the forum, and was constructed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb 
of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were 
annually given near these monuments. 

Of the edifices and monuments of Sparta it may be remarked in general, that-they were not 
distinguished for architectural beauty; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its ap- 
pearance. 

§ 129. On the south side of the city was the 'Ittt^oojuo?, or course for foot and horse 
races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance from it was the 
Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beautiful plane-trees, and en- 
closed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small river which fell into it on the other, and 
by a canal which opened a communication with both on the third. The Platanistas 
was entered by two bridges, on one of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-sub- 
duing force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. 

The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gytheium, Tvdeiuj^ situated 
west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 stadia, according to 
Strabo, and 30 [300 ?] according to Polybius. It was early surrounded by strong 
walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and 
where they found every requisite for their maintenance and security. 

The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Palmochori or old town, about two miles distant 
from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoula. "The whole site," says Chateau- 
briand, "is uncultivated; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird, 
not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled, without 
noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half-wild horses were feeding 
Iiere and there upon the withered grass; a shepherd was cultivating a few water-melons in a 
corner of the theatre ; and at Magoula, which gives its dismal name to Lacedaemon, I observed 
a small grove of cypresses." 

On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see Chateaubriand's Travels (p. 94, ed. N. Y. 1814). — Le Roi, Monumens de la Grece.— 
Sir W. Gell, Itinerary of the Morea.— Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8.— Cramer, Doduoell, &c. as cited P. V. 
§ 7. (b). 

IV. ISLANDS BELONGING TO EUROPE. 

§ 130. It Was mentioned (§ 8), that having considered the mainland of Europe under 
three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands together 
under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the Atlantic or 
Mediterranean; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. We will speak first of 
those in the Atlantic. 

§ 131. Of these, Britannia was the most important. It was scarcely known to 
exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by successive migrations from 
Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when invaded, and thus pro- 
voked the vengeance of Rome. The south-western shores are said to have been 
visited by the Phoenicians at a much earlier period ; and that enterprising people have 
been described as carrying on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly 
isles, which, from their abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides Insula 
or Tin islands. 

$ 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter rather of curiosity 
than utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remarkable. — The Cantii occupied the south 
of the island ; in their territory were ttutupim (Richborough), celebrated for its oysters by Juve- 
nal ; and Partus Lemanis (Lymne), where Csesar landed, B. C. 55. — The Trinobantes possessed the 
country north of the Cantii ; their chief town was Londinum (London), the most flourishing Ro- 
man colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South Wales, and appear to have been a very 
flourishing and warlike tribe. Caractacils, one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely 
defended the liberties of his country ; and for a long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Ro- 
mans: he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome. — 
On the eastern coast were the Iceni, whose queen Boadicea, having been cruelly abused by the 
Roman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she ob- 
tained several victories over her oppressors, but Was finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, 
A. D 61. — The north of England was possessed by the Brigantes, the most powerful and ancient 
of the British nations; their principal towns were Eboracum (York), and Isurium (supposed to 
be jQldborounrk), the capital of their tribe. 

$ 133. Scotland was still less known than England; five nations on the borders, 
known by the general name of Meatce, were subdued by Agricola, and became nomi- 
nally subject to the dominion of Rome. 

When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five following 



PLATE V. 




1. The Rotunda of Palonica, the ancient Thessalonica. It is supposed to 
have been a Cabiriun Temple. By the Christians it was converted into a 
church of Paul and Peter. The Turks have turned it into a mosque ; ar.d 
erected the minaret, which appears attached 10 it, and in the gallery of 
which is seen a Mziezzin, whose office is to announce from the gallery the 
hour of prayer. 



A fountain for the Mussulman ablution before prayers. 



39 



40 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

provinces : Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern division of the 
country; Flavia Ccesariensis, containing the western tribes; Britannia secunda, 
which included all Wales ; Maxima Ccesariensis, which contained the country 
between the former divisions and the river Tweed ; and Valentia, occupied by the 
Meataj. 

$ 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid waste the Roman 
settlements, several walls were built across the island. The first was erected by the celebrated 
Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. But this being found insufficient to restrain 
the incursions of the barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and 
dimensions. — The wall of Adrian extended from JEstuarium Itunm (Solway Frith), on the western 
coast, to Seo-edunum (Cousin's House), a village north of Pons JElii (Newcastle-upon-Tyne), on 
the eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart and ditch, and was 
strengthened by forts erected at short intervals.— Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoni- 
nus rebuilt the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neg- 
lected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. 

$ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erected by the emperor Seve- 
rus, A. D. 200.— It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the 
strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built 
of stone and cement ; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, 
and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison this 
immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred mariners, appointed 
to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with the shore. 

% 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides (Western 
Isles), Mona Taciti (Anglesea) , Mona Ccesaris (Man), Vectis (Isle of Wight), and Cas- 
siterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was 
called Ierne Juverna, or H i b e r n i a. 

The Irish say that they are descended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period, part of the country was colonized by the 
Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been urged that the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure 
Irish ; and that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of materials precisely similar 
to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sir W. Hamilton in the field of Cannae. — Cf. P. V. § 352. 2. 

An island called T h u 1 e is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most 
distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we cannot be 
certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and 
Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf. § 3). 

§ 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the western part. 
The Balearicce, deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants in slinging and 
archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balearis major (Majorca) ; 
Balearis minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica). 

Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum Fosses 
(Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was of little note in 
ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It con- 
tained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North 
of Mariana was Matinorum Oppidum (Bastia), the present capital of the island. — 
Sardinia derived its name from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Her- 
cules, who at a very early period led a colony hither ; it was called by the Greeks 
Ichnusa, from its resemblance to the human foot. Neither serpents nor wolves were 
found in this island, and (as we are told) only one poisonous herb, which caused those 
who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic grin. 
The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the 
Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war. 

There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of Italy ; the 
chief were Hit a (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary 
banishment; Prochyla ; and Caprece (Capri), infamous as the scene of the unnatural 
debaucheries of Tiberius. 

§ 138. Sicilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the 
south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina). — 
It was called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from its triangular shape, terminating in three 
promontories ; Pelorus (Faro), on the north ; Pachynus (Passaro), on the south ; and 
Lilybceum (Boco), on the west. 

Syracusce (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most remarka- 
ble cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by Archias, and 
arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles.-— 
It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be esteemed separate towns ; 
viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks originally settled ; Acradina facing 
the sea ; Tycha, between that and the following division ; Neapolis, which stood on 
the great port; and Epipolas. — Syracuse had two ports, the lesser formed by the island 
Ortygia, and the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a 
large bay, having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its southern 
extremity. The celebrated prison called Latomice was cut out of the rock by the tyrant 
Dionysius ; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit 
all sounds from below to a small apartment, where the tyrant used to conceal himself, 



P. I. EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 41 

in order to overhear the conversation of his victims ; it is now a very handsome sub- 
terraneous garden. 

This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expedition, and 
the formidable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town was besieged by Marcellus. 
This siege was protracted principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archimedes. 

v ) 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Messana ; Leontium ; 
Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided ; Lilybceum, Drepanum, Panormos (Pa- 
lermo), Hiinera ; Naidockus, where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept; 
Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head quarters of a republic of 
slaves, and held out against the Roman power for several years ; Selinus, known for 
its vigorous but unavailing resistance to the Carthaginians. 

Interesting Greek ruins have been found at Selinus, Agrigentum, &c. — On these ruins, see R. Koare, Classical Tour, vol. ii. p. 78 ss. 
— Cf. P. IV. § 178. 3.— F. Gartner, Architect. Monum. of Sicily, as cited P. IV. § 243. 1.— See also the citations, P. IV. § 234. 3. 

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simcsthus (Giaretta), celebrated for the produc- 
tion of amber; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and Demosthenes were 
taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the eastern coast ; on the south 
side were Camicus and Crimisus, with some smaller streams; and on the north, the 
river Himera.-~ Mount JEtna, so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of 
Sicily ; the poets feigned that the giants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buried under 
this heap, and that the eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. 

The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Laestrigons, a barbarous race of people, 
almost extirpated by the different Greek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's 
situation induced to settle in this island. 

§ 140. Near the western angle or corner of Sicily are three small islands called 
JEgates, opposite one of which, JEgusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians 
in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of 
Sicily were the Insula JEol'ue (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Li-para, 
which was once a place of great consequence-; the next in size is Strongyle (Stromboli), 
where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated 
volcano. — South-east of Sicily is Melite (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its 
cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem 
to Rome. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient 
station for commerce on account of its excellent harbor. — Near Malta is the small island 
of Gaulos (Gozo). 

§ 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corcyra 
(Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, from which it was 
separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or 
Phceacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — 
The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous 
and Cassiope. Near the promontory of Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to 
have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his native 
country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phaeacians 
for aiding Ulysses. 

Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through 
by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Lcucas, in earlier 
ages called Nericum, and the neighboring country Neritis ; it was founded by a Co- 
rinthian colony, and was joined to the continent by a bridge, as the strait was here very 
narrow.— -At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named 
Leucate, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Leucopetra, from which unfortu- 
nate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple 
of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. 

The Echinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river 
Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the empire of Ulysses. 
— Near Dulichium was Ithaca (Thaki), the birthplace of Ulysses; the capital was also 
called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Neritus. 

$ 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — Its chief 
town was Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that name ; there 
were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; from which circumstance 
it is called Tetrapolis. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure. 

South of this was Zacynthus (Zante), with a capital of the same name, celebrated for 
its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance 
of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues from the 
oily matter that floated on its surface. 

West of the Peloponnesus were the Slrophades (Strivoli), at first called Plotce, the 
residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphacleria (Sphagiae), taken 
by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponnesus 
was Cythera, or Porphyrce (Cerigo), sacred to Venus. It contained two excellent towns 
and harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with great care ; 
but the Athenians destroyed both in the first Peloponnesian war. 
6 d2 



42 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 143. We may include among the JEgean Islands all that remain to be noticed. 

The Thracian islands occupy the northern part of the JEgean, and were named 
Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus. — Thasus (Tasse), opposite the mouth of the Nessus, 
was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named iEthria. It produced wine and mar- 
ble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the 
sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of two years they were compelled 
to surrender at discretion. — Samothrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from Samos, 
by a colony from which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the 
worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies to the south of Samothrace. 

§ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It 
contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, be- 
cause he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Smmthae in the Phry- 
gian language. 

South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown 
out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, 
Hephoestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Macedonian coast, was 
Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of 
the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sol- 
atia) ; Scopelos (Scopela) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his 
mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. 

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of 
the. philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcceus, and the poetess Sappho ; its 
chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Miiylene, from whence the island 
has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. 
The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great 
public sympathy. 

§ 145. The largest island of the JEgean was Eubcea (Negropont), opposite the coast 
of Bceotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait called the Euripus. Into 
this strait Aristotle (P. V. § 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in 
a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. 
The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Aulis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euri- 
pus; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war; Oreus, on the 
Euripus ; the town and promontory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, 
where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystus, in 
the south, between the promontories Geraestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the 
quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Eubcea is not 
very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. 

In the Saronic gulf were iEgina (Engia), anciently iEnone, strongly fortified by 
nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea; here were discovered the monu- 
ments called the JEginetan sculptures or marbles (cf. P. IV. § 190. 3). The iEgine- 
tans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and 
obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salamis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, 
father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia- 
des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy 
k of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria (Foro), where Demos- 
thenes poisoned himself that he might not fail into the hands of Antipater, the suc- 
cessor of Alexander the Great. 

§ 146. South-east of Eubcea was the large cluster of islands called the C yc lades, 
from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called 
Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana; on which, 
near Mount Cynthus, stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which pil- 
grimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Paralus 
07 TrdpaAo?), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and dur- 
ing its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. The other 
remarkable islands in this group were Myconus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands 
whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals; Andros and Tenos, south-east 
of Eubcea; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cylhus, Siphnus, and 
Melos (Milo), south of Ceos ; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the birthplace of 
the statuaries Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was 
ungratefully deserted by Theseus ; Ios, where Homer was said to have been buried; 
Thera, and Anaphe. 

§ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the iEgean were called the Sporades, and 
more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed 
by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sacred to Juno, the birthplace of Py- 
thagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the Icarian sea ; Patmos (Palmossa), where the 
Apostle John wrote the Revelations ; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Car- 
pathus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Ehodus (Rhodes).— 
This latter island contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus. 

At the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. II. 
$ 72). It held in one hand a lighthouse. This splendid statue (cf.P. IV.$ 180. 1) was thrown 



TOE 




p. I. ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. INDIA. PERSIA. 43 

down by an earthquake about B. C. 225, and having long lain prostrate was broken up by the 
Saracens when they became masters of the island, in the seventh century. 

§ 148. Greta (Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the iEgean, was the most cele- 
brated island of ancient times : it is said to have contained a hundred cities, the princi- 
pal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the north side of the island ; Gortynia, 
on the opposite side, where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Dsedalus ; and 
Cydonia, by some esteemed the capital. 

The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idiei Dactyli, who lived near Mount Ida, and exercised 
mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Curetes, who directed their attention 
to agriculture.— Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and from his laws 
the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally borrowed. The fabulous legends 
respecting this monarch, his wife Pasiphae,and his daughter Ariadne, are mentioned in another 
place (cf. P. II. $ 117. (a), and $ 125). 

The Cretan Latyrinth is generally represented to have been near Gnossus ; but some suppose it to have been found in the remark- 
able excavations or caverns near Gortynia, consisting of several chambers and galleries. It is not improbable that some such cavern 
near Gnossus gave rise to the story of au artificial labyrinth.— See H'CcWs Crete.— Cockerell, on the Cretan Labyrinth, in IValpole's 
Memoirs.— Smith, Diet, of Antiquit. art. Labyrinthus. 



II. OF ASIA. 

§ 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is cele- 
brated as the birthplace of the human race ; the quarter where the true God was wor- 
shiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism ; the scene of 
our Savior's life and sufferings ; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive sway (cf. § 211) before the commence- 
ment of authentic European history. — From Asia the first principles of the arts and 
sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation had attained a high degree 
of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. 

$ 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the 
Eastern and Western ; the boundary between them being the river Rha or Wolga, 
the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. 

The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinarum Regio, India, Persia, Media, 
and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Paropamisus. — The 
Western includes Sarmatia, with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pon- 
tus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, with the 
countries in the valley of the Tigris. 



I. THE COUNTRIES OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 

§ 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of 
Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scythia intra Imaum, 
and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, 
which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — Scy- 
thia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Se- 
rica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare 
of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia. 

There has been much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Serica— Cf. D'Anville, and Gosselin, sur la Serique 
des Anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vol. xxxii. p. 573, and xlix. p. 713.— Class. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. S2.—Antlioris 
Lempriere, article Seres. 

The Sinje occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients ; sup- 
posed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital Was Thynce, on the 
Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. 

§ 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in their 
northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or Menan, 
which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided by the ancients 
into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the boundary between them be- 
ing the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus (Bay of Bengal). This 
country was but little known before the expedition of Alexander. The southern part 
of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Como- 
rin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the river Chaberis (Cavery), 
was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Aurea 
Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Pro- 
montorium (now cape Romania). 

§ 153. Persia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river 
Tigris, between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the south. But the name 



44 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the 
Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros chain and the river Tigris on the 
west, to the Parueti and Arbiti Blontes separating it from India on the east. Thus it 
includes several provinces. 

Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and 
Susa; the latter, called in the Bible Shushan, was the winter residence ot the Per- 
sian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes 
mountains into the Tigris. — Per sis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the 
Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capi- 
tal was Persepolis, represented as a city of great splendor; the royal palace was set 
on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his 
mistress Thais. 

The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. Il was situated on a beautiful plain six miles 
wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E which is now crowded with numerous villages.— Through 
this flowed the Jlraxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir discharging into Lake Baktegian. The 
principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehul-Minar, Chil-Minar, or Shehel-Minar, or 
palace of forty columns. 

See a description, with plates, in Rob. Ker Porter's Travels.— G. Keppel, Journey from India to England, by Persia, &c. in 1824. 
Lond. 1827. i.—J. E. Ahxander, Travels from India to England, through Persia, Asia Minor, &c. in 1826. Lond. 1827. 4.— Cf. 
Herder, The Univ. History, &c. cited § 211. VI. 

Previously to the founding of Persepolis, the royal residence was at Pasargada, which was in 
Ccele-Persis, on the river Cyrus, flowing southerly into a small lake ; here king Cyrus is said to 
have erected a tomb for himself, in a high narrow tower. 

A monument still exists, which has been supposed to be the tomb of Cyrus : it is represented in our Plate XVIII. fig. 1.— Cf. 
F.III. §187. 4. 

The other provinces were C a r m a n i a (Kerman), south-east of Persis, also border- 
ing on the Sinus Persicus ; G e d r o s i a (now Mekran), lying on the Erythrceum Blare 
and extending from Carmania to India ; Arachosia and Drangiana, which in- 
clude the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the 
south and the Paropamisus on the north. — This latter territory was watered by the 
Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east, and south, 
flowed into the Aria Palus, a lake or sea on its western limits ; the whole territory was 
often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of 
the Paropamisus. 

§ 154 a. Media was situated south of the Blare Caspium; its northern limit was the river 
Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia ; on the south were Susiana and Persis. Its 
principal river was the Mardus or Amardus, rising in the south-western part, where the 
Orontes chain of mountains is connected with the Zagros chain, and flowing by a cir- 
cuitous course into the Caspium Blare in the country of the Mardii. Media was sepa- 
rated from Armenia on the west by Blons Imbarus, a chain extending from Mt. Ararat 
on the north to the Zagros on the south. The capital was Ecbatana (now Hamadan), 
in the region south of the mountains termed Orontes. 

Ecbatana was made the summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and afterwards of the 
Parthian Two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character, are still shown to travelers 
as being those of Mordecai and Esther. — Ragce, or Rages, mentioned in the apocryphal book 
of Tobit, was a place of some importance, north-east from Ecbatana. 

See Rennell, Geog. of Herod, sect. v. 11, as cited P. V. § 241. 5.— Hock, Vet. Med. et Pers. Monumenta, cited P. IV. j 171.— Mal- 
colm, as cited § 211. VI. 

$ 154 b. The northern portion of Media, lying on the river Araxes, was formed, after 
the death of Alexander, into an independent kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and 
thence called Atropatene; having as its capital Gaza (now Tebriz or Tabreez), 
and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropatia on a stream flowing into the 
Mardus. In the western part of this province was the Lacus Spauta or Blarcianus 
(lake of Oroomiah), near which on its western side was Thebarma (Oroomiah), said 
to be the native place of Zoroaster or Zerdusht. 

This region, now a part of Aderbijan, and belonging to Persia, has become intensely interesting, on account of the American mis- 
sion established among the Nestorian Christians, who reside in the plains of Oroomiah and in the mountains on the west, and whose 
existence was first made known to the western world about the year 1826.— See Smith and Dwight, Researches, &c. as cited P. IV. 
§ 36. I.— Miss. Herald, vol. xxi. p. 11. xxxiv. p. 289.— .#. Grant, The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes. N. York, 1841. 12.—/. Per- 
kins, Account of a Residence in Persia, &c. Bost. 1843. 8. with colored plates. (See Plate VI a.) 

§ 155, Under Parthia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner of the 
Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the river Oxus (Gihon), which flows to 
the north into the sea of Aral, although it was once supposed to flow into the Caspian, 
and is so delineated on some maps. It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a pro- 
vince belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, after the time of Alexander, it was 
made the seat of a new state, which under his successors, called Arsacidce, grew into 
a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resistance to the Romans (§ 211. vni.). 
One of its principal places was Nisma (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ochus 
(Margab), which empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place, 
on the small river Socanda. — But the royal residence of the Arsacidae was Hecatompylos , 



PLATE VI a. 



^oaclroTr^. 




46 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

in the south-western part; although the later Parthian monarchs sometimes resided at 
Ctesiphon on the Tigris. 

The remaining countries, between Parthia and Scythia, were Aria, Bactriana, and 
Sogdiana. — A r i a was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, al- 
though the name was often extended, so as to include (§ 153) a large region south of 
that chain of mountains. The principal place was Artacoana (now Herat). — B a c t r i- 
a n a was east of Aria and south of the river Oxus ; its capital was Zariaspa or Bactra 
(Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — S o gd i a n a includes the territory between the 
Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir; corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. 
Its chief place was Maracanda (Samarcand), on the Polytimetus, a branch of the Oxus. 
Cyropolis was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied this 
region; in the north-eastern part were the Sacce. 

• 

II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 

§ 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first S a r m at i a, called Asiatica, 
to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was sepa- 
rated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited 
by roving and uncivilized tribes; particularly the Alani, and the Cimmerii: from the 
latter, the strait connecting the Palus Moeotis with the Euxine received its name of 
Bosphorus Cimmericus. — South of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the 
west, and the Mare Caspium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Col- 
chis, Iberia, and Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places was 
JEa, on the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — A 1 b a n i a was on the Caspian, extending south 
as far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An important place was one of the two celebrated 
passes of the Caucasus, called Pyla Albania or Caucasian, between a northern spur of 
the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the strong city 
of Derbend. — lb eria was between Colchis and Albania, a high valley, watered by 
the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus 
led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine ; it was the defile through 
which the river Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus ; it is now called Dariel. — 
These passes, and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed 
PylcB Caspice ; but. the pass properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern pass 
of Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. 

On these passes, cf. Walckenar, de Portes Caspjennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c. in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe cVHist. 
et Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 210, with a map. — Bibl. Repository, No. xxii. p. 370. 

§ 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount 
Masius and the Carduchi Monies on the south, and from Media on the east to the 
northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents 
three great valleys, extending nearly east and west; first, that on the north-east, 
watered by the Araxes, also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, 
the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summit 
called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in 
its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Palus ; 
third, the south-Western, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphates Montes, 
and watered by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an 
easterly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the an- 
cient capital : Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Eu- 
phrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by Lucullus 
in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. 

The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been ascended, for the 
first time, by Prof. Parrot, in 1829. See Bibl. Repos. No. xxii. p. 390. 

§ 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the 
middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countries 
bordering On the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia intra Taurum and 
Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Mi- 
nor, included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different 
periods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, beginning at the iEgean sea, were 
Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus.-- The middle provinces 
were Lydia, Phrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia 
Minor. — The southern provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. 

See Rennell, Geography of Western Asia. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8. 

$ 159. Phrygia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the em 
trance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern 
travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, called also Ilium. 

Ilium was built at some distance from the sea, above the junction of the Seamander, or Xan. 
thus, and Simois, two small streams, rising from mount Ida, and falling into the Hellespont; the 
citadel was called Pergamus, and was erected on a little hill included within the walls. TU9 



P.I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 47 

plain between the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scamander and Simois, and 
there the battles mentioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was 
the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was bounded by the Helles- 
pont, which here forms an extensive bay, between the promontory of Rhmteum on the north, and 
Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the 
camp. Ajax was buried on the Rhaetean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. 
See P. II. § 132, and P. V. § SO.—Rennell, and others, on the Topography of Troy, as cited P. V. § 50. 7. 

Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to Bithynia. 
The principal towns of the former were, Abydos (§ 73) ; and Lampsacus, dedicated to 
Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury. — The principal city in Mysia Major 
was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in the Propontis, and joined by 
two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when be- 
sieged by Mithridates ; near this is the river Granicus, where Alexander defeated 
the army of Darius, and where Lucullus obtained an equally important victory over 
Mithridates. 

§ 160. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bosphorus 
and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were, Apamea, at the mouth of the river 
Rhyndacus; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Kadi Keui, or Cadi's 
village), called the City of the Blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible 
site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Ghrysopolis (Scutari, directly 
opposite to Constantinople), where the Athenians stationed a fleet imposing tribute on 
all vessels from the Euxine ; Libyssa, where Hannibal was buried ; Calpas and Hera- 
clea, on the Euxine ; Niccea (Nice), where the first general council was assembled ; 
and Prusa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found 
refuge with king Prusias. 

Prusa attained great importance under the name of Bursa, when Othman, founder of the Ottoman empire, made it his capital. It 
continued to be the chief residence of the Sultans until the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It still retains, in the modern Broosa, 
an important rank among the cities of Asiatic Turkey. (See Plate, VI b.) 

Paphlagonia, lay between the rivers Parthenias and Halys. The chief towns 
were Sinope (Sinube), the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of the kingdom of 
Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite 
the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. 

P on tus, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halys 
to Colchis. The principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys ; Eupatoria, on the 
confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopolis ; Amasia, the birth- 
place of the geographer Strabo ; Themiscyra, on the river Thermodon, where the 
Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence Lucullus brought the first 
cherry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of 
Colchis, greatly celebrated by the romance- writers of t,he middle ages. Near the river 
Halys the Leleges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron- works, resided. 

The Christian scholar will feel a peculiar interest respecting Pontus and Bithynia, from the circumstance that here occurred those 
bitter persecutions of the early converts to Christianity which are noticed in the letters of Pliny the younger, governor of these pro- 
vinces under the Emperor Trajan. See P. V. § 441. 1. 

§ 161. Lydia, called also Masonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and Mysia, and 
to the east of the iEgean sea. The northern part of the coast was called iEolia, and the 
southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — JEolia was 
colonized by the iEolians, soon after the termination of the Trojan war ; its chief 
towns were Adramyitium, founded by an Athenian colony; Pergamus (Bergamo), the 
capital of a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithri- 
dates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus its last king; its port was called Elea; be- 
tween Elea and Adramyttium was Lymessxis ; south-west from Pergamus, Thya- 
tira : and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the same name, near which are the 
JEginusan islands, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely defeated the 
Spartans. — Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the principal were 
Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born; a cave 
here used to be shown to travelers as his birthplace, and another as the spot where 
he wrote his poems (cf. P. V. $ 50) ; north and east of Smyrna was Mt. Sipylus, the 
residence of Niobe (cf. P. II. § 131) ; Clazomence, on a peninsula of the same name, 
celebrated for its wealth ; Erythrce, near mount Mimas, the residence of one of the 
Sybils: Corycus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans; 
Teas, the birthplace of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula of Clazomenas, were Colo- 
plum, on the river Hales us, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo, 
Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degene- 
rated into a paltry village, remarkable for the splendid temple of Diana; Mycale, 
opposite Samos, w r here the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks; Priene, 
on the Mceander, a river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birthplace of 
Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount 
Tmolus, on the river Paclolus, a branch cf the Hermus. Not far east from Sardis 
was Thymbra, celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Croesus. On 



48 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, was overthrown by the 
Romans. 

Within the limits which we have above given to Lydia, were six of the seven churches addressed m the Apocalypse; viz. in the 
order in which the apostle John introduces them — Epbesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, and Philadelphia ; the other, Lao- 
dicea, was in Phry*ia Major.— See Milner, History of the Seven Churches. Lond. 1832. 8.— Arundtll, Visit to tht Seven Churches 
of Asia. Loud. 1S2S. 8.— On the ruins of Sardis, cf. Miss. Herald, for 1839, p. 208. 

§ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, extending from the river Lycus on the 
south to the Sangarius on the north. Its chief towns were Pessinus, near the foot 
of mount Dindymus, sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose image was 
conveyed thence to Rome at the end of the second Punic war (P. II. § 21) ; Gordium, 
celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander ; Apamea, on the river 
Marsyas, where Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas ; Laodicea, cele- 
brated in sacred history, on the river Lycus; and Colossa. Calatia, or Gallo- 

Graecia, lay north of Phrygia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns 
were Ancyra (Angoura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamer- 
lane ; Gangra, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Taviitm, 

the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. 

The principal towns of the former were Isaurm, the capital ; Lystra and Derbe, men- 
tioned in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town of the latter was 
Iconium.- Both of these provinces were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. 

§ 163. Cappadocialay between the Halys and the Euphrates. Its most remark- 
able towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony ; 
Tyana, the birthplace of the impostor Apollonius (cf. P. V. § 255 b) ; and Mazaca, 
named by Tiberius, Ccesarea ad Argceum, to denote its situation at the foot of Mount 
ArgcBus, from whose summit, as ancient writers assert, the Euxine and the Mediter- 
ranean might both be seen. — 'The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the 
-name of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cabira or Sebaste, a well fortified city captured 
by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novas, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and Ni~ 
copolis, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates. 

The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad Kappas, or nations whose 
names began with that letter ; the other two were the Cretans and Cilicians. 

§164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was C aria. Its chief towns were 
Halicamassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius 
and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monument, one of the seven won- 
ders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of C'aria, to the memory of her hus- 
band Mausolus ; Cnidus, in the peninsula of Doris, sacred to Venus; Alabanda, on 
the Moeander; and Stratonicea, on the southern coast. 

Lycia lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns were Telmessus, on a gulf of the 
same name, called also Sinus Glaucus, from the river Glaucus flowing into it ; Xanthus, 
celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed them- 
selves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of 
Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the 
volcano Chimcera, fabled by the poets to have been a monster subdued by Bellerophon 
(cf. P. II. § 117). Some hills at the Promontorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the 
commencement of Mount Taunts, and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge 
adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their 
middle in water. 

See Fellowcs, Account of Discoveries in Lycia.— Cf. Amcr. Eclectic, Jan. 1841. 

§ 165. Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and Pamphylia, two mountainous districts, 
whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were Antiochia; 
Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer; and Cremna, a 
Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia were Perga, the capital ; Aspendus, 
on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coracesium, 
where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. 

C i 1 i c i a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into 
two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or 
level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the emperor Trajan died ; 
Anamurium, opposite Cyprus ; and Seleucia (Seletkeh), on the river Calycadnus.—In 
Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have received 
its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth- 
place of the Apostle Paul; Issus, where Alexander obtained his second triumph over 
the Persians : and Alexandria, (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate 
the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Amanus, be- 
tween which and the sea were Pylce Syrice, a celebrated pass. — The river Cydnus is 
remarkable for the coldness of its waters, by which Alexander was almost killed, and 
for the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks when Antony visited Cleopatra. 

§ 166. Syria was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by the 
Euphrates ; on the south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. It was 



PLATE VI &. 




50 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

divided into five provinces, Comagene, Seleucis, Ccelo-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judea, 
or Palestine. 

The principal city of Comagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the birthplace 
of Lucian. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian 
goddess Astarte (cf. P. II. § 48), on the Euphrates ; Bercea, previously Chalybon (now 
Aleppo), on the Chalcis, flowing into a small lake ; Antiochia, where Christians first 
received their name, on the river Orontes; near it Daphne, with its delightful grove 
sacred to Apollo ; Apamea (Famieh), higher up the Orontes, which rising in the ele- 
vated regions on the eastern side of Libanus, flows by a north-west course to the 
Mediterranean ; still further up, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, the worst of the 
Roman emperors ; and "on the opposite side of the Orontes," near the limits of this 
province, Heliopolis (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract 
admiration. 

From the map of Syria accompanying Robinson's Researches, Balbec appears to be on the Leontes. — " Among' the cities which 
.ire enumerated by Greek and oriental names in the geography of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, and Heliopolis or Bal- 
bec. Under the last of the Caesars, they were strong and populous ; the turrets glittered from afar ; an ample space was covered 
■with public and private buildings ; and the citizens were illustrious by their spirit, or at least by their pride ; by their riches, or at 
least by their luxury. In the days of paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted to the worship of Baal, or the sun j but 
the decline of their superstition and splendor has been marked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a vestige remains of the temple 
of Emesa, which was equalled in poetic style to the summits of mount Libanus; while the ruins of Balbec, invisible to the writers 
of antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European traveler. The measure of the temple is two hundred feet in length, 
and one hundred in breadth : the front is adorned with a double portico of eight columns ; fourteen may be counted on either side ; 
and each column, forty-five feet in height, is composed of three massy blocks of marble. The proportions and ornaments of the 
Corinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks."— See the view given in Plate VII.— Ii. Wood, Ruins of Balbec. Lond. 
1757. fol.— C. B. Elliott, Travels in Austria, Russia, and Turkey. Lond. 1838. 2 vols. 8. 

Ccelo-Syria was so named because it lay between the two parallel chains of 
mountains, Libanus and Anti- Libanus ; and the name is sometimes applied so as to 
include the valley of the Orontes, and also the whole valley of the Leontes, which 
rises near the western sources of the Orontes, and flows by a south-western course 
to the Mediterranean. But it is limited, in our division, to the upper part of the latter 
valley, north of mount Hermon, the principal peak of Anti- Libanus ; including also 
another valley on the east (now called Gouteh Demesk, or Orchard of Damascus), 
watered by the rivers Chrysorrlwas (Pharphar) and Abana, flowing into a large lake 
below Damascus, which was the chief town of the province. — The territory east and 
north-east of these valleys as far as the Euphrates, is mentioned in connection both 
with Seleucis and with Ccelo-Syria; but more commonly under the general name of 
Syria ; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should be mentioned ; as Thapsacus 
(El-Der), the celebrated ford, .passed by Cyrus in his expedition against Artaxerxes, 
by Darius after his defeat by Alexander at Issus, and by Alexander in pursuit of Da- 
rius ; and Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as the boundary of the Roman empire 
when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region was 
Palmyra, or " Tadmor in the desert," said to have been built by Solomon, the resi- 
dence of Longinus (cf. P. V. § 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the em- 
peror Aurelian ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ruins. 

On the ruins of Palmyra, see R. Wood, as cited P. IV. § 243. 3.— The Modern Traveller.— Irby and Mangles, Travels in Egypt, 
Syria, &c. Lond. 1S22. 8. 

Phoenicia contained the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their exten- 
sive commerce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate 
defence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the besiegers. 
Berytus (Beirut), north of Sidon, was the seat of a distinguished school for the study 
of law in the age of Justinian. 

Beirut has been for several years a very interesting missionary station. In its vicinity, on mount Lebanon, dwell the Maronites 
and the Druzes. — See JowetVs Researches. — Missionary Herald, from the year 1823, passim. — Bond's Memoir of Pliny Fisk. 

§ 167. Judaea, or P alas s tin a, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan, of Israel, 
and of Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes ; it was afterwards 
separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally the Romans divided it 
into four regions, Galilaea, Samaria, Judaea Propria, and Peraea or Transfluviana, the 
country beyond Jordan. 

G alii 33 a was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews; and Su- 
perior, which, from its proximity to Ccelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the Gentiles.— 
The chief towns of Upper Galilee were Ccesarea Philippi, so called to distinguish it 
from another town of the same name in this province ; its original name was Laish, 
afterwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Caesarea Philippi, by Herod's son 
Philip ; Gahara and Jotopata, bravely defended by the historian Josephus, when be- 
sieged by Vespasian. The principal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace, or Ptoiemais 
(Acre), memorable for its siege by Richard Coeur de Lion in the time of the Crusades; 
Canes ; Sepphoris, afterwards called Dio Caesarea ; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large 
lake in Galilee was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesareth ; at its northern ex^ 
tremity was Chorazin; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, and Bethsaida; 
on the opposite side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmel and 






•vsi 




p. I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. JTJD.EA. 51 

Ilabyrius or Tabor, the scene of our Lord's ' ansfiguration. — Between Galilee and 
Samaria stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten cc. lerale cities called Decapolis, which, 
dreading the power of the Jews, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean 
princes, who then governed Judea. 

§ 168 a. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the capital, 
destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Herod, who called it Sebaste, in 
honor of Augustus; Ccesarea, first called Turris Stratonices , a celebrated seaport, the 
residence of the Roman governors ; Joppa, a seaport south of Coesarea, where An- 
dromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Perseus (P. II. § 122) ; Sichem, in the 
interior, the ancient capital, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim, : it was in later 
times called Neapolis ; Lydda, called by the Greeks Diospolis ; and Arimathea. 

Judaea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead 
Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we 
shall notice particularly in the next section. North-west from Jerusalem was Em- 
maus or Nicopolis, where the Jews were defeated by Vespasian; directly north was 
Bethel; north-east was Jericho; south from Jerusalem was Bethlehem, the birthplace 
of Christ ; further south, Hebron, where Abraham was buried ; still further, some- 
what to the west, Beersheba, often mentioned as the southern limit of the country of 
Israel ; south-west, Eleutheropolis, a very flourishing city in the time of Eusebius. 

$ 168 b. Hierosolyma, or Jerusalem, originally belonged to the Jebusites, from whom it waa 
taken by David, who made it his residence. The Arabians now call it El-Kuds, the Holy. — It is 
situated on a broad elevation, having higher hills all around it ; the Mount of Olives on the east ; 
on the north a ridge extending from the Mt. of Olives and bending around to the west, at the 
distance of more than a mile : on the west, hills at a greater distance sloping gently, beyond a 
plain ; on the south, the Hill of Evil Counsel rising directly on the further side of the Valley of 
Hinnom. 

It is surrounded by walls presenting a stately appearance, of hewn stone, with towers and 
battlements, of a height varying according to the inequalities in the ground, from twenty to fifty 
feet; in circumference about two and a half geographical miles. The ancient walls formed a 
larger circuit of about three and a half geographical miles accordingto Josephus ; and Jerusalem 
is said to have been anciently fortified by three walls ; but this statement must not be understood to 
mean that there were three walls around the whole city, one within another ; since the two 
inner walls were merely walls intersecting the city and joining the outer wall ; the hill of Zion 
was first of all enclosed within a wall: then Moriah, with Ophel, was added, and afterwards 
Akra, and a second wall was extended from the old one so as to include these ; subsequently 
Bezetha was annexed, and to protect this a third wall was constructed joining the others. 

Of the eight former gates, only the four larger are now open : the Gate of the Pillar, or Da- ■ 
mascus Gate, on the north ; the Gate of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west; the Gate 
of David, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Gate of the Tribes, or St. Stephen's Gate, on the 
east. The principal streets now run nearly at right angles to each other. 

The surface of the ground is diversified by five hills : the largest is Zion, in the southern part, 
rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom ; north of this and in the western part of the city is 
Akra, separated from Zion by the valley of the Tyropoeon ,• north-east from Akra and east of the 
Damascus Gate is Bezetha, in the north-western part of the city ; south-east from this and in the 
eastern part of the city is Moriah, which, with Bezetha, rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat ; 
south of Moriah, and at the south-eastern corner of the city, is Ophel: Bezetha, Moriah, and 
Ophel may be considered as parts of one ridge which extends to the south beyond the walls. 

These hills are closely encompassed on three sides by narrow valleys ; on the east the Valley of 
Jehoshaphat ; on the west, the Valley of Gihon, which is continued into the Valley of Hinnom on 
the south : at some distance from the south-eastern corner of the city, the Valley of Jehoshaphat 
and that of Hinnom are connected. The Brook Kidron is but the bed of a torrent which during 
the rains of winter flows through the Valley of Jehoshaphat to the south. The valley in which 
was the bed of the ancient Tyropceon commences in the depression between Zion and Akra (near 
the western or Hebron or Bethlehem gate), and descending easterly bends to the south between 
Zion and Ophel, and meets with the other two valleys at their common point of junction. 

The hill Zion was the part first occupied by David, and hence called " the city of David." 
Only the northern part of it is now within the walls ; much of the rest is literally "a ploughed 
field ;" on the north-western partis the present citadel, the lower portions of the walls of which 
are probably the remains of the ancient Tower of Hippicus. — On the summit of Akra is the church 
of the Holy Sepulchre, on the spot designated by doubtful tradition as being the Golgotha and 
the Calvary of the Scriptures. — Bezetha is mostly covered with low buildings or hovels, with no 
obvious traces of ancient ruins. — On Moriah, which at the first was apparently a mound of solid 
rock, the Temple of Solomon was built ; the surface of the rock being leveled for the purpose ; 
and then immense walls were erected from the base of the rock on the four sides, and the 
interval between filled in with earth or built up with vaults so as to make on the top a large 
area, which formed the Court of the Temple. To this the present area of the grand Mosque of 
Omar, or enclosure called " El-Haram-esh-Sherif," nearly if not wholly corresponds; being a 
plateau or terrace nearly in the form of a parallelogram, supported by and within massive walls 
built up from the lower ground on all sides; the lower portions of the walls are probably the 
very walls on which the ancient Temple rested ; as seems to be shown by some remains of an 
immense arch which supported the Bridge that formerly extended from the Temple across the 
Tyropoeon to a celebrated Xystus or portico on Mount Zion. — In the northern part of the present 
area of the Mosque of Omar was the fortress called the Tower of Antonia, rendered memorable 
in the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, who captured the city, A. D. 70; at which time the Temple 
was utterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque now on its site was built by Omar in the seventh 
century. 

The ancient inhabitants depended for water, as do the modern, chiefly on cisterns ; aimost 
every house having now one or more excavated in the limestone rock on which the city stands. 
Immense cisterns also still exist within the space under the area of the Temple. Large open 



52 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

reservoirs or tanks, or pools, were likewise constructed in and around the city. The UppeT Pool 
and the Lover Pool still exist; the former west of the city, in the Valley of Gihon ; the latter, 
on the south-west, in the Valley of Hinnom. The Pool of Bathsheba, the Pool of Hezekiah, and 
the Pool of Bethesda, are names given to three reservoirs within the present walls : the latter is 
at the north-east corner of the Haram-esh-Sherif ; but there is no evidence that it is the pool 
mentioned in the New Testament by the same name (BnOeaSa), having five porches. — The only 
Fountains of living water now accessible are three; that now culled the Well of Nehemiah, pro- 
bably the En-Rogel of the Old Testament (Josh. xv. 7, 8; xviii. 16), a deep well just below the 
junction of the Valley of Hinnom with that of Jehoshaphat; the Fountain and Pool of Siloam, 
which is in the valley of the Tyropceon, just above its junction with the Valleys of Hinnom and 
Jehoshaphat; and the Fountain of the Virgin, which is some distance from that point of junc- 
tion, up the Valley of Jehoshaphat : the water of the latter is accessible only by descending 
sixteen steps down an excavation in the solid rock; and an artificial subterranean passage 
extends from it through Mount Ophel to the Fountain of Siloam, winding so as to make the 
distance 1750 feet, by which the waters of Siloam proceed from the Fountain of Mary the Vir- 
gin. — A fountain is said to exist at the depth of seventy or eighty feet below the area of the 
grand mosque, flowing by some artificial passage. 

An Aqueduct, supposed to be ancient, carries water across the Valley of Hinnom, around the 
sides of Mount Zion, and conveys it, as is supposed, to the Haram-esh-Sherif, or area of the 
mosque. 

East of Moriah, on the rocky elevation just beyond the Brook Kidron, are the sepulchral 
monuments called* the Tomb of Jlbsalom or Absalom's Pillar (cf. P. III. $ 187. 5), and Tomb of 
Zacharias. — South-east of these, on the south-western declivity of the Mount of Olives, are the 
excavated sepulchres called the Tombs of the Prophets. — Those called the Tombs of the Judges, 
are further up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rather west of north from the city.— The remarkable 
excavations commonly called the Tombs of the Kings, are about north from the city, on the nearer 
side of the valley: they are probably the celebrated sepulchre of the mother of Constantine, the 
Empress Helena, who, having embraced Christianity, spent the latter part of her life at Jeru- 
salem, and died there at the age of eighty, about A. D. 325. 

The above outlines of the Topography of Jerusalem will be of service to the student in reading the Scriptures, and the intensely 
interesting story of the siege and destruction of the cily by the Romans.— See Jnsephus (cf. P. V. § 248). — Milman, as cited § 211. ri 

For fuller details as to the Topography, see F. G. Crome, Jerusalem, in Ersch und Gruber's Encyclopddie. — E. Robinson, 

Biblical Researches, as cited § 171. In vol. iii. is a full list of works on Palestine. For details respecting the Temple, with Plans, 

&c, see H. Prideaux, Connexions, &c. N. York, 1840. 2 vols. 8. with engravings. — Calmet, Diet, of the Bible, Fragments 242 — 
249. vol. iii. p. 346. Chariest. 1813. 4 vols. 4.— For Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, &c, see also Calmet, vol. iii. p. 164. 

§ 169 a. The southern district of Judaea was called Idumea, or the land of Edom ; 
the chief towns were Gera, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot of Mount Seir. But this dis- 
trict, or the principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, under Arabia Pe- 
trcea (§ 171). — The sea- coast was called Philistcea, or the land of the Philistines, from 
whom the whole country is now called Palestine ; its chief towns were Gath, Ekron, 
Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. 

§ 169 b. Peraea is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. The 
chief towns were Ramoth-Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites ; Gadara, on the tor- 
rent Hieromas, where the Christians were severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, 
a fortress of remarkable strength ; Gamala, near the Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth- 
Ammon, in the district Ammonitis, afterwards called Philadelphia. — The Jordan 
rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through the Sea of Tiberias, falls into the lake 
Asphaltites, whence there is no exit for its waters. 

This lake is supposed to occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It has 
been said that, from its extreme saltness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and 
vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. E. Robinson, who 
visited the region in 1838, states that the water is intensely salt and bitter : but that trees and 
bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor was perceived, and many birds were singing among 
the trees, and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Rcpos. Apr. 1839, p. 419. 

§ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and Eu- 
phrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were Nisibis, on a branch of the 
Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthians ; Edessa, near Syria ; 
Selexicia, now Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigris with a branch of the Euphra- 
tes ; and Carrhce, called in Scripture Charran, for a time the residence of Abraham, 
and the scene of the miserable overthrow of Crassus. On the borders of Chaldaea 
were the plains of Cunaxa, where Cyrus was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and 
where the ten thousand Greeks commenced that retreat so memorable in history. 

Babylonia and Chaldaea were districts separate from Mesopotamia, lying below it 
to the south-east. Their chief town was Babylon, the most ancient and remarkable 
city of antiquity. 

Belus, its founder, commenced his building near the tower of Babel, which by profane writers 
is called after his name ; but to Semiramis, the widow of his descendant Ninus, the grandeur 
of Babylon is attributable. She enclosed the city with a wall of brick cemented by bitumen, of 
almost incredible dimensions, and ornamented it with one hundred brazen gates. The circuit 
of the city was said to have been more than sixty miles ; and so great was its length, that when 
Cyrus had captured one extremity of the cily, the inhabitants of the other were ignorant of the 
event until the following morning. — The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and Cyrus 
having diverted the river into another channel, led his troops through the vacant bed, and sur- 
prised the Babylonians, who, with their monarch Belshazzar, were at that moment celebrating 
a feast in honor of their gods, and consequently made but a feeble resistance. — The Chaldaeans 



P.I. AFRICA. ^EGYPTUS. 53 

were celebrated astronomers, but they debased the science by the admixture of judicial astro- 
logy, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated. 

On the topography and ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, see J. M. Kinneir, Geographical Memoir on Persia. — Rennell, Remark* 
on the Topography of Babylon. Lond. 1S16.— Rich, Memoir on Babylon, &c. Lond. 1818.— Bill. Repos. No. xxii. 365; No. xxiii. 
158,248; No. xxv. 139. 

East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdistan from the Carduchi, a tribe 
that inhabited the northern part of the country; they are mentioned by Xenophon as 
having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand ; they are supposed still to exist in the 
modern Koords, various tribes of whom occupy the mountains of this country, and 
who are generally of a savage character. — Its chief towns, Ninus or Nineveh, fre- 
quently mentioned in Scripture ; the ruins of this celebrated city he opposite the mo- 
dern Mosul; and Arbela, near which is the village Gaugamela, where Alexander 
overturned the Persian empire, by the defeat of Darius. 

§ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which was the 
large peninsula between the Sinus Persicus (Persian Gulf), and the Sinus Arabicus 
(Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta (desert), Petrcea (stony), and 
Felix (happy). 

Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldaea, and extended along the Sinus 
Persims. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the southern part border- 
ing on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarkable among its inhabitants 
were the Sabcei, who cultivated frankincense. Macoraba was the name by which the 
Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious in the Mohammedan history ; here is the 
famous building called Kaba or Kaaba, with the fabulous black stone of Gabriel. — 
Arabia Petrasa was a smaller portion lying south of Judea and at the head of the 
Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea, which is here divided into two bays, the eastern called 
JElanites Sinus, and the western Heroopolites Sinus. Between these bays or arms 
were the mountains Horeb and Sinai. On the eastern was the seaport Berenice or 
Asiongaber, the Ezion-Geber of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Petra 
(called Sela by the Hebrews), embosomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea, in 
the district called Idumea. 

The ruins of Petra- have been discovered recently, and have excited great interest from their 
striking peculiarities (being entirely excavations from the solid rock), and from the evidence 
they furnish of the fulfilment of prophecy. 

See Laborde's Journey to Arabia Petrsea, Lond. 1836. 2 vols. 8. with 65 plates — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. No. cxvii.— North Amer. 
Rev. for Jan. 1837.— Bill. Repository, vol. ix. p. 431.— Stephens, Incidents of Travels, &c— E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in 
Palestine, Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Petraea, Bost. 1841. 3 vols. 8. 

The observations ana inquiries of Robinson seem to have settled the question as to the mountain on which the Ten Command, 
ments were given by God to Moses ; showing satisfactorily that it was not the summit poiuted out by tradition under the name of 
Sinai or Jebel-MOsa, but another summit a little north-west from it, belonging to what is called Horeb.— See the very interesting 
account, vol. i. p. 87-212. 

The celebrated Sinaitie Inscriptions, which have attracted the attention of travelers, in an unknown and peculiar alphabet, have 
lately been deciphered by Beer, of Leipzic. — See Robinson, vol. i. p. 188, 552. — Grey, in the Transact, of the Royal Soc. of Litera- 
ture, vol. iii. Lond. 1832. 

§ 172. The Asiatic Islands were not very important, except those in the Mare 
JEgaeum already named (§ 147). The principal other in the Mediterranean was C y- 
prus, sacred to Venus; the chief towns of which were Paphos, where stood the 
celebrated temple of Venus, infamous for the debauchery and prostitution it sanc- 
tioned ; Citium, the birthplace of Zeno, the Stoic, on the west coast ; Salamis (Fama- 
gusta), built by Teucer, on the east ; Lapethus, Arsinoe, and Soli, in the north ; and 
Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, in the interior. — The other islands were 
Proconnesus (Marmora), in the Propontis; Taprobane (Ceylon), and Jabadi (Sumatra), 
in the Indian ocean. 



III. OF AFRICA. 



§ 173. The name Africa was applied strictly and properly by ancient geographers, 
at least until the time of Ptolemy, to a small part of that vast peninsula of the eastern 
continent which it now designates ; and by them Egypt was reckoned among the 
Asiatic kingdoms. But we here use the term as including all that was known to the 
ancients 01 that whole country. We shall consider it under the following divisions ; 
JEgypttjs, or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, Africa Propria, Numidia, Mauritania, 
and Africa Interior. 

§ 174. The general boundaries of ^Egyptus were the Mediterranean on the north, 
Syria and the Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Lybia on the 
west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torrens JEgypti, or river of Egypt as 
called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called Palus Sirbonis. The 

e2 



54 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

limit between Egypt and Lybia on the west was the great declivity and narrow pass 
termed Catabathmos (<cara/?afc>d$). Its southern limit was the smaller cataract of the 
Nile. 

One of the most striking features of Egypt was its river, Nilus. This has two prin- 
cipal sources ; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called Abys- 
sinia, and the western in the Luna Montes, or Mountains of the Moon. Having passed 
through the ancient Ethiopia, it flows through the whole length of Egypt to the Medi- 
terranean ; not receiving a single tributary for the last 1000 miles of its course, and at 
last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular island called Delta from 
its shape. It had seven mouths ; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the 
others in their order proceeding towards the east, were the Balbytinum, Sebenniti- 
cum, Phatnicum, Mendesium, Taniticum, and Pelusiacum. — Its annual inundations 
were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in great num- 
bers to convey the water over the whole country ; where the land was too high to 
allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the water ; almost every vil- 
lage, it is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many 
thousand cities and villages. 

§ 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt ; the northern part on the Me- 
diterranean was called JEgyptus Inferior; the southern part on the confines of Ethio- 
pia was JEgyptus Superior or Thebais; and the portion between these, Heptanomis. — 
The capital of Lower Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart of Indian merchandize ; 
during the middle ages, caravans continually passed from thence to Arsino'e (Suez), 
on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the har- 
bor was an island named Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was built ; south 
of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egyptian wine was 
made. In Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been burned by the 
Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. § 76).— In the interior of the Delta was Sais, the ancient capi- 
tal, remarkable for its numerous temples. Between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus 
were Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings ; and Onion, founded by a colony of 
Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, 
and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple. 

In Lower Egypt, east of the Delta, was the land of Goshen, according to the views of the best modern authors.— Cf. E. Robinson, 
on the Exodus of the Israelites, &c. Bibl. Repot, vol. ii. 744. Also, Researches, vol. i. 

§ 176. In the middle portion or Heptanomis, one of the chief places was Memphis, 
near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient metropolis of all 
Egypt ; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsino'e south-west of Memphis 
was an important place ; near this was the famous lake Mozris, said to have been exca- 
vated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile 
conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birhet-el-Kurun, and believed to have 
been wholly or chiefly the work of nature ; at the southern end of this lake was the 
still more celebrated Labyrinth. — Oxyrynchus was a considerable place, said to have 
derived its name from a sharp-nosed fish (<5£us pvyx°s) worshiped by the inhabitants. — 
In Upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thebais to 
this division ; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos ; although de- 
stroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying 
a space of 27 miles in circumference, including the modern Karnak, Luxor, and other 
villages; near it was the famous statue of Memnon. — Tentyra (Denderah), was north 
of Thebes, and also presents interesting ruins ; especially the large temple of Isis, 
from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transported to France and 
made the subject of much speculation (cf. Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iv). — Between 
Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Cop- 
tos; from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert 
to Berenice on the Simos Arabicus. Considerably to the south of Thebes was Ombi, 
made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the wor- 
ship of the crocodile. Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the 
place of Juvenal's exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer solstice, its 
bottom being then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over 
it. Not far from Syene was the island On which Elephantine stood, of which interest- 
ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Mons Basanites, mountains of touch- 
stone, from which the Egyptians used to make ornamental vases. — South of Syene 
were the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red granite (Syenite) cross the bed 
of the river, and throw its waters into an impetuous and foaming torrent. In this region 
were the quarries whence the vast obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyp- 
tian temples were taken. There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus, which 
should be mentioned ; Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt ; Arsino'e (now 
Suez), at the head of the Sinus Heroopolites, the western arm of the Red Sea; and 
Myoshormus, called also Portus Veneris, midway between them ; they were commercial 
places, goods being transported from them to the Nile. A canal, called Fossa Trajani, 
connected Arsinoe with that river. 



'Yiii 




P. I. AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. 55 

In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the cultivated and 
inhabited spots called Oasis Magna, and Oasis Parva, the Great and the Little Oasis. 
The latter was in the division termed Heptanomis, south of lake Moeris. The Great 
Oasis is in the part that was called Thebais. It was a place of banishment in the time 
of the later Roman empire ; yet said to have been a delightful residence, and some- 
times called by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed. 

§ 177. The ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest interest 
in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various temples and other edifices, of which 
splendid remains are found in various places, the following rank high among the objects 
of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of these were removed to Rome; of 
the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks 
called Cleopatra's Needles at Alexandria, and Pompey's Pillar, also at Alexandria. An 
obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be erected 
in that city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the 
seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the ancient 
Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at Gize are the most cele- 
brated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. 
Several others have been opened in recent times. They all contain chambers evidently 
used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. IV. § 231. P. II. § 96. 3.)— 3. Catacombs. These 
are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most re- 
markable are near Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot 
of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks, and extend, 
it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. — 
The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included 
numerous subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead ; over these was 
an immense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris 
($ 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images and statues. One of the most re- 
markable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. II. § 117) is near the great pyra- 
mids. A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. 
P. II. § 74. P. IV. § 169. 2. § 231. 1).— The Egyptian monuments are covered with 
inscriptions in Hieroglyphics (cf. P. IV. § 16). 

Much research has been employed in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A new degree of interest was 
awakened in the whole subject by the celebrated expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion of Egypt, he took with him a 
detachment of no less than one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (savans) selected for the purpose. "This 
body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invading army, was liberally supplied with books, philosophical instruments, 
and all the means of prosecuting the several departments of knowledge."— The splendid work, published under the emperor's 
patronage, and styled Description de VEgypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. IV. § !69). 

Many other valuable works illustrating the history and monuments of Egypt have been published during the present century, 
some from members of the company of savans above named. That of Denon holds a high rank ; entitled Travels in Upper and 
Lower Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates. — The following works relate to this subject. Leigh's Travels 
in Egypt. — Belzoni's Travels. — Jomard's Description de 1'Egypte. — Hamilton's ^Egyptiaca. — Letronne, Recherches sur l'Egypte. 
— Russell's View of Ancient and Modern Egypt, in Harper's Earn. Library, No. xxxiii. — /. Miot, Memoires de l'Expedition en 
Egypte, &c. Per. 1S14. — J. G. Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, and general View of Egypt. Lond. 1835. 8.— J. G. Wilkinson, 
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Lond. 1837. 3 vols. 8.— We may add, the Travels of Clarke, Norden, Shaw, 
Pococke. Cf. Supplement to Encyclop. Britann. article Egypt.— Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xiii. 1. xvi. 1. xvii. 181. xix. 178. raiv. 
p. 139.— Amer. Quart. Rev. No. vii. — For. Quart. Rev. Nos. xxxii. and xxxiii. — Am. Bill. Repos. No. xxiii. — See also references 
given P. IV. § 216. 1. § 230. 1. § 238. 3. § 243. 3.— A history of Pompey's Pillar is given in /. While's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1S21. 

§ 178. ^Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the coun- 
try lying south of Egypt ; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly 
were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient 
times ; on the coast were the Troglodytes, said to inhabit caves of the earth. It seems 
also to have contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. 

The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis. — Auxume 
(Axum) was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazze), the eastern branch of 
the Nile. Its ruins still exist. ". In one square, Bruce found 40 obelisks, each formed 
of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscriptions, but no hieroglyphics. One 
of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — Here was found the monument usually called the 
Inscription of Axum (cf. P. IV. § 92. 5.). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus 
Arabicus ; having some celebrity from two inscriptions there found (cf. P. IV. § S2. 
5). — Meroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the 
modern Shendy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between these 
rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand 
emporium of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of Africa. 
The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone still mark its site. — Napata was 
farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. 

These regions have also been explored in modern times, and splendid ruins have been found scattered along the valley of the Nile. 
The following are some of the sources of information on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, cited P. IV. § 1 18. I. — Travels 
of Salt and Lord Valentia ; of Burckhardt ; Franc. Gau (P. IV. § 243. 3), and especially of Cailliaud.—Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. 
vol. xvi. 13. \ix. 174 — Hoskins' Travels in Ethiopia, Lond. 1835, 8. 

§ 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from JEgyptus on the east to the 
Syrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite portion on the south. The 



56 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

term was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most 
limited sense, it included only the region between Egypt and the Syrlis Major (Gulf 
of Sidra). — In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast only the two districts Mar- 
marica and Cyrenaica. We include under Lybia also the portion farther west called 
Regie Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named. 

Mar marica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to 
possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents; some of them, named 
JPsylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom 
out of the wound. In an Oasis, now El Wah, south of Marmarica, stood the cele- 
brated temple of Jupiter Ammon (P. III. $ 71), and near it the fountain of the sun, 
whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, 
and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having encountered great difficulties, suc- 
ceeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. 

"Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wah (the bushes), the northern 
Oasis. He found, as Hornemann had, the tops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salt, and 
wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus related 
two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has been considered as the 
temple of Jupiter Ammon ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him see this 
'work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet water, 
whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown was told 
by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni; who says 
he proved the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this spring is warm in the mornings and 
evenings, much more so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni pos- 
sessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the air which had 
changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 95. 

Cyrenaica, or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and the Syrtis Major, 
or altars of the Philseni. It contained five cities ; Cyrene, founded by a Greek colony, 
the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades ; Apollonia, a celebrated seaport ; Ptole- 
mais, at first called Barce ; Arsinoe, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the 
gardens of the Hesperides, famous for their golden apples, and the residence of the 
Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf. P. II. $ 115. Ed. Rev. No. 95, p. 228).— West 
of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, from its three cities, Tripolitana ( Tripoli) ; 
its cities were Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name 
near Carthage ; CEa, the present city of Tripoli ; and Sabrata, a Roman colony; and 
Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast ; 
he says that they fed on the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it imme- 
diately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quick- 
sands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners; here, also, was the lake 
Tritonis, sacred to Minerva. 

^ There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — The 
situation of Cyrene is described as exceedingly beautiful. — "It is built on the edge of a range 
of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the summit of a 
lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may 
be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of 
which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east and west as 
far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward, and then descends abruptly 
to the coast. Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads 
leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instances by narrow flights 
of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives 
of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep fur- 
rowing the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these 
galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural 
facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, were 
ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs ; and the whole sloping space between the 
galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit 
very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble, 
ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmanship, was found in a large 
excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, repre- 
senting historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of Hercu- 
laneum and Pompeii. (Cf. P. IV. $ 226).— In the region of Cyrenaica are several caverns con- 
taining stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that 
this fact, together with the existence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may 
have given rise to the story of the petrified city, of which, under the name of Ras Se7ii, marvelous 
accounts have been related to travelers in Africa." 

See Modern Traveler.— B e e c h y ' s Travels. 

At Tysdrus are still found ruins of Roman structures ; particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, 
" consisting formerly of four rows of columns in tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades." 
The inner area is said to be 300 feet in length and 200 in breadth ; and the whole circumference 
1570 feet; the height is estimated to have been at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is 
nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved.) 

See Rev. C. F. EwaWs Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine, Jan. 13, 1838. 

§ 180. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propria, of which the capi- 
tal was Carthago. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and 
by its extensive commerce became one of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its 
citadel was called Byrsa, because it was said that Dido, on coming here, purchased 



P. I. AFRICA. NUMIDIA. MAURITANIA. 57 

as much ground as she could encompass with a 0vpna, or hide, and then, having cut 
the hide into strips, took in the space originally covered by the city. 

Carthage is immortalized by poets and historians on account of the three wars which it sus- 
tained against the Romans. The last of these wars resulted in the total destruction of the city 
by Scipio Africanus the younger, B. C. 146. The city is said to have been above twenty miles 
in circumference ; it being set on fire by the Romans, the conflagration lasted seventeen days. 
A new city was built by the emperor Augustus at. a small distance from the site of the ancient. 
The new Carthage was taken from the Romans by Genseric, A. D. 439, and for more than a cen- 
tury afterwards was the capital of the Vandal empire in Africa. It was finally destroyed by the 
Saracens towards the end of the seventh century. A single aqueduct is said to be the chief trace 
of it found in modern times. 

The other remarkable towns in this district were Tunes or Tuneta (Tunis), where 
Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner ; Clupea, near the Promonlorium Mercttrii 
(Cape Bona) ; Adrumetum; Thapsus, where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba; and 
Utica, where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, 
where Regulus slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. 

§ 181. Numidia was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, ruled by 
Massinissa, and that of the Massassyli, under the government of Syphax ; but after 
the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom under Massinissa. The capi- 
tal was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable for 
its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small river Rubricatus, the episcopal seat of Saint 
Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the interior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zama, where Han- 
nibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of the desert were Thala and Capsa. 

§ 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Its 
chief towns were Ccesarea, whence the eastern part was called Caesariensis; and 
Tingis (Tangiers), from which the western received the name Tingitana. This 
country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating it from Numidia, to some dis- 
tance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after their conquest over these regions, 
planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which 
some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Ex- 
ploratio ad Mercurium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this terri- 
tory were named Oceanus Atlanticus, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, 
which bounded Mauritania on the south, and terminated at two different points on 
the coast, the northern ridge being termed Atlas Minor, and the southern Atlas 
Major. — Mons Abyla was the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Medi- 
terranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled 
pillars of Hercules (Herculis Columnce). 

. § 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Africa In- 
terior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries.— The Gaetuli, and 
Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dwelling within it. The Nigritce 
were placed about the river Niger. The Great Desert was called Deserta Libyce In- 
terior-is. On the coast west of this were the Insula Fortunatco; called also Cana- 

ria, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence 
their modern name Canaries. — South of these were the Insulce Hesperidum, the mo- 
dern Cape Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides 
(cf. § 179). — West of this coast the ancients also placed the island Atlantis, said to 
have existed once, and to ht.ve been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was re- 
presented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerful. 

Some have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjectured 
that the Canaries, Madeira Isles, and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus described ; 
and others have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of America. 

The latter opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows : An Attempt to show that America must be hnoum to the 
Ancients, 4-c. by an American Englishman, Pastor of a Church in Boston. Boston, New England, MDCCLXXIII. — Some have 

imagined that this island was situated in the Northern regions; Bailly, Lettres sur l'Atlantide de Platon, &c. Paris, 1779. 8. 

See Malte-Brun's Geography.— Bory de St. Vincent, Essai sur l'antique Atlantide. Par. 1804. 4.— The ancient story is given ia 
the Critias or Atlanticus of Plato. 

8 



VIII a. 




MilV-J HX>IOJ\[ 



utHVJ HXXlOg 



INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



Preliminary Remarks. 

§ 184. Chronology treats of the computation of time and of the dates of events. It 
is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there was scarcely any sys- 
tematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly important science. Accurate chro- 
nology is essential to all reasoning from historical facts ; the mutual dependence and 
relations of events cannot be traced without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been 
called one of the eyes of history, while geography with equal propriety has been said 
to be the other. Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly con- 
sidered, in studying history and biography. 

In treating this subject, although our design requires a special reference to Classical Chronology, 
yet from the nature of the subject we must introduce some things which belong rather to the 
science in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes of com- 
puting it ; and endeavor to present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full study 
of the classical historians and of ancient history. 

Chronology may be considered as consisting of two parts; the first, measuring 
time and adjusting its various divisions; the second fixing the dates of historical events 
and arranging them in order. 



I.—Of measuring Time and adjusting its divisions. 

§ 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested to all 
men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, months, and 
years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or the apparent revolution 
of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical changes in the moon ; the year 
from the annual motion of the earth in her orbit round the sun. — These three divisions 
are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief embarrassment in the science of 
Chronology; it has, in point of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in 
a system of measuring time as to have the computed time and the actual time perfectly 
in agreement or coincidence. 

§ 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was dis- 
tinguished, it is likely, from the night ; extending from sunrise to sunset only. It was 
afterwards considered as including also the night, or time between sunset and sunrise. 
But the beginning of the day has b,een reckoned differently by different nations, for 
civil purposes ; at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of 
India; at sunset, by the Jews, Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese; at midnight, 
by the Egyptians, Romans, and moderns generally. — Astronomers in their calculations 
consider the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to 
Priestley. There have also been various modes of subdividing the day. — "The di- 
vision of time into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher (CEdip. .ZEgypt. t. ii. 
part 2). The most ancient hour is that of the* twelfth part of a day. Herodotus ob- 
serves that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians [Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 109], among 
other things, the method of dividing the day into twelve parts ; and the astronomers 
of Cathaya still retain this method. The division of the day into twenty-four hours 
was not known to the Romans before the Punic war." (Tegg.) 

§ 187. The Greeks, in the time of Homer, seem not to have used the division into 
hours ; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the day, morning (")«?), 
noon (nivnv r^ap), and evening (6ei\r)). But before the time of Herodotus, they were 
accustomed to the division of the day, and of the night also probably, into 12 parts. 
They were acquainted also with the division of the day and night into four parts each, 
according to the Jewish and Roman custom. 

The Romans subdivided the day and night each into four parts, which were called 
vigils (vigilia:) or watches. They also considered the day and the night as each di- 
vided into 12 hours; three hours of course were included in a vigil. — The day vigils 

59 



60 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

were designated simply by the numerals prima, secunda, lerlia, quarta; but as the 
second vigil commenced with the third hour, the third vigil with the sixth hour, and the 
fourth with the ninth hour, the terms prima, teriia, sexta, and nona, are also used to 
signify the four vigils of the day. The night vigils were designated by the names ves- 
pera, media nox, gallic inium, conticinium. 

It is sometimes stated, that the first vigil and first hour of the day commenced at what we call 
6 o'clock A. M. ; the third vigil (vigilia tertia), and sixth hour (hora sexta), at 12 o'clock, noon ; 
the corresponding vigils and hours of night, at what we call 6 o'clock P. M., and 12 o'clock, mid- 
night. This statement may be sufficiently accurate in general ; but it must be remembered, that 
the Roman hours and watches were of unequal length ; the first hour of the day began with sun- 
rise, and the twelfth ended at sunset; and the first hour of the night began at sunset, and the 
twelfth ended at sunrise. Of course, the hours of the day in summer were longer than those of 
the night, and in the winter they were shorter. Cf. P. III. $ 228. 

§ 188. Different devices have been employed for marking and making known 
these parts of the day. The sun-dial was used by the Babylonians and Jews ; and by 
the latter, watchmen were maintained to announce the time. The Greeks borrowed 
the sun-dial from the Babylonians, and called it the Heliotrope (fiXiorpoinov), or Gno~ 
mon (yv(oixu)v) ; but the latter term properly designates the needle or index which cast 
the shadow on the dial. — The Romans, besides the dial (horologium, solarium), em- 
ployed also the Clepsydra, for some account of which see P. III. $ 228. 

Several specimens of the ancient sun-dial are still preserved; one is said to he still remaining 
nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. " Upon each side of the 
octagonal building commonly called the tower of the winds, was also placed a vertical sun-dial ; 
the gnomon or index projected from the side, while the lines indicating the hour were cut upon 
the wall. The lines of the dial upon the wall are distinctly extant at the present day: and 
although the gnomons have disappeared, the places where they were inserted are still visible." 
Besides stationary dials, the ancients had portable ones of metal, which were termed Phorema- 
tica. (Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, vol. ii.) — An instrument called a water-clock was in consi- 
derable use in some parts of Europe a few centuries ago. Striking clocks are said to have been 
invented by the Arabians about A. D. 800. — Watches were first made in Germany, A. D. 1477. 

See Berthoud, Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horologes. Par. 1802. 2 vols. 4.—Ernesti, de Solariis, in his Opuscula. — 
G. H. Martini. Abhandlung von den Sonnenuhren der Alten. Leipz. 1777.— Saltier and Falconet, Sur les horologes des Anciens, in 
the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 148 ; and vol. xx. p. 440. Cf. vol. iii. p. 174, on the Gnomon.— Smith, Diet, of Anti- 
quities, art. Horologium. — Gough, on a Roman Horologium found in Italy, Archseologia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. x. p. 172, 
with a plate. — For delineations of several ancient sun-dials, see Calmet, as cited § 168 b. vol. iii. p. 363. 

§ 189. The month. This division, without much doubt, had its origin in the various 
phases or changes in the moon. It included the time of the moon's revolution round 
the earth, or between two new moons, or two successive conjunctions of the sun and 
moon. The mean period is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; it was considered to be 
29^ days ; and the ancients commonly reckoned the month as consisting alternately 
of 29 and 30 days. 

The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and termed those which had 30 days, 
nXfipetg (full), and dtnaqbOivol (ending on the 10th day) ; those of 29 days they termed 
koIXoi (hollow or deficient), and ewaQdivoi (ending on the 9th day). Twelve lunations 
thus computed formed the year ; but it fell short of the true solar year by about 11 days 
and a quarter, making in four years about 45 days. To reconcile this and bring the 
computation by months and years to coincide more exactly, another month was inter- 
calated every two years ; and in the first two years a month of 22 days ; and in the 
next two, a month of 23 days ; thus after a period of four years the lunar and solar 
years would begin together ; this was called the TerpasTripls. But the effect of this 
system was to change the place of the months relatively to the seasons ; and another 
system was adopted. This was based on the supposition that the solar year was 365 
days and a quarter, while the lunar was 354 ; which would in a period of 8 years give 
a difference of 90 days; the adjustment was made by intercalating, in the course of the 
period, three months of 30 days each; the period was called 'OKraerriplc.. Its invention 
was attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos ; it was universally adopted, and was followed 
in civil matters, even after the more perfect cycle of Meton was known ; one reason 
may have been die reciprocal adaptation between the Octaeteris and the Olympiad, the 
former including exactly two of the latter. 

§ 190. " The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with those 
of the corresponding Julian months, as near as they can be given. In this list Scali- 
ger's account has been followed, which, upon the whole, we believe the most cor- 
rect. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised but a few days of the latter 
part of our June, and the greater part of July, the latter month will be given as the 
corresponding one. — 1. 'ExaToix/3aid>v, July; so called from the great number of Heca- 
tombs which were usually sacrificed in this month. — 2. Merayeirvicov, August; so called 
from the sacrifices which were then offered to Apollo MerayeiTviog, because on this 
month the inhabitants of Melite left their island and removed to Attica. — 3. BoriSpopihiv, 
September; which was so called from the festival termed Bor t Sp6ma. — 4. livaveipiojv, 
October; so called because in this month, after the fruits of the year were gathered, 
feasts were served up, the chief of which consisted in boiled pulse [eaten in memory 
of the food of Theseus on the last day of his voyage from Crete]. — 5. MaipaKTripiaiv, 



P. I. DIVISION OF TIME. THE MONTH. 61 

November; so called from Jupiter Ma^d/cr???, the boisterous, because in this month the 
weather was very tempestuous. — 6. UoaeiSedJv, December; in which month sacrifices 
were offered to UocjeiSuv, Neptune; as if.it were called Neptune's month. — 7. ra/^/wwi/, 
January; which was sacred to Juno Ta/x^Ato?, the goddess of marriage. — 8. 'Avdearri- 
pidjv, February; which took its name from the festival of the same name. — 9. 'EAa- 
(pn&otuuv, March; so called from the festival 'E\a<t>r)86\ia, which was sacred to Diana 
'E\a<pri06\os, the huntress, because this was the month for hunting stags. — 10. Mowu- 
%iw»', April; in which sacrifices were offered to Diana Movwx'ia, from the harbor of 
this name, in which she had a temple. — 11. Qapyn\iu>v, May; in which month sacri- 
fices were offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. — 12. ZKippotiofnuiv, June ; so 
called from a festival of the same name celebrated in this month in honor of Mi- 
nerva. Every month was divided into rpia Sexn^pa, three decades of days. The 

first of which was called wvos dpxop.evov or Icrajxivov, the decade of the beginning ; the 
second, p-r/vds psaovvros, the decade of the middle; and the third, wvds (ptiivovros, or 
■xavopivov, the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was called veopnvia, 
because it happened on the new moon ; the second, Sevripa larapivov, and so on to 
6tKa.Tr] laraixivov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the 
eleventh day, was called ^9<^rr\ pecovvros, the first of the middle, or irpurr> lm Sixa, the 
first after ten; the second, Ssvripa peaovvros, and so on to the twentieth day (£<'*dj), r 
the last day of the second decade. The first day of the third decade was called T/ic5r?; 
eir' bik&Si, or rrpdSTT) QdivovTos, and so on. The last day of the month was denominated 
by Solon fan koX via, the old and new, as one part of the day belonged to the old, and 
the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the last day 
of the month received from him the name of Ariprj-pias." (Cleavelaud.) 

On the Attic months, cf. Classical Journal, ix. 324, 559.— L. Ideler, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c). 

§ 191 a. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months ; but 
Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — But as this 
formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, an extra- 
ordinary month (jnensis intercalaris , called also Macedonius) was to be inserted every 
other year. The intercalating of this and the whole care of dividing the year was en- 
trusted to the Pontifices (P. III. § 228), and they managed, by inserting more or 
fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they for any reason might 
choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, 
so that the winter months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into sum- 
mer (Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in- 
tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speaking of 
the year (§ 192). — The names of the Roman months were the following; Martius, 
March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romulus, in whose arrangement of the 
year this month was the first; Aprilis, derived by some from the verb aperio, the 
month in which trees and flowers open their buds ; Mains, May, from Maia, mother 
of Mercury; Junius, June, from Juno; Quintilis, the fifth month, afterwards named 
Julius, July, from Julius Caesar; Sexlilis, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, from 
Augustus Caesar ; September, seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; De- 
cember, tenth; Januarius, January, from Janus; Februarius, February, so called from 
the purifications Ftbrua performed in this month (P. III. § 230), being the last of the 
year. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans personified the Months and the Seasons as well as the Hours ; 
a further account of these personifications is given in P. 11. $ 105. 
In Plate IX. are representations of the Four Seasons, as sculptured on the Arch of Severus (cf. P. IV. § 188. 2). 

§ 191 b. The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Ka- 
lendcB or Calendar, Nones, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month ; 
the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month, excepting March, May, 
July, and October ; in which four months the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on 
the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted backwards 
from these three fixed points, including always the day from which the reckoning began ; 
e. g. the last or thirty-first day of December was called the second from the Calends 
of January, pridie [ante] Kalendas Januarii; the last day but one or 30th of Decem- 
ber, was called the third from or before the Calends of January, tertio [die ante] Kal. 
Jan.; and so on back to the 13th day, which was called Idus; the 12th was pridie 
Idus, and soon back to the 5th, which was the Nona:; the 4th, by this plan of 
reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. 

Cf. La Nauze, Calendrier Komain, in the Mem. Acad- Inscr. vol. xxvi. p. 219. 

A Roman Calendar, compiled from Ovid, Columella, and Pliny, which notes the rising and setting of the stars, the Roman festi- 
vals, &c, is given in PatUy's Encyclopadie (cited P. III. § 13. 5) ; it may be seen in Smith's Diet, of Antiq. art. Calendar. — See also 
Foggini, as cited P. IV. § 133. 6. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division properly answering to our weeks ; although 
the former had their decade of days ($ 190); and the latter their nnndinm, or market days occur- 
ring every ninth day (P. III. $ 229). But the Egyptians and oriental nations had a week of seven 
days. This division (Jiebdomades) was introduced among the Romans, it is said, not far from the 

F 



62 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

beginning of the third century after Christ. The days were named after the planets or pagan 
gods; Dies Solis, Sunday; Luna, Monday; Martis, Tuesday; Mercurii, Wednesday; Jovis, 
Thursday; Veneris, Friday ; Saturni, Saturday. It is worthy "of notice that our names for the 
days had a similar origin, as is seen by observing their Saxon derivation ; Sunnadmg, Sun's day ; 
Monandccg, Moon's day ; Taesdmg, day of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; (Vodensdceg, day of Wodin or 
Odin, a northern deity ; Thorsdwg, day of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter ; Frigdceg, day of 
Frigga, the Venus of the north ; Saterdtzg, day of Saeter or Seater (i. e. Saturn, cf. P. II. $ 15). 

^ 192. The year. This division was probably not formed until some considerable 
advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long after its first adop- 
tion before it attained to any thing like an accurate form. — The most ancient year of 
which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, 
thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured that this gave rise to the divi- 
sion of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is still preserved. But it 
was soon found that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the 
earth ; and an addition of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days ; 
this is ascribed to the Thebans. The Grecian year, however, as established by So- 
lon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a 
quarter. 

The manner in which the Greeks made their computation by the luoar months to agree with the solar year, has already been 
espLnned (§ 189). Cf. Gibert, L'annee Grecque, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 133. 

The Boman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius 
Coesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their com- 
putation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned (§ 191), and like- 
wise the confusion which resulted from it. This Caesar attempted to remedy (cf. P. 
V. § 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 
days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 
days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of confusion. And to secure a proper 
allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 
years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in the reckon- 
ing of every 4th year ; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This 
is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after 
the 6th (sextus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called bissextus; hence the 
phrase bissextile year still in use. 

But in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. before a whole day had been gained ; because 
computed time, instead of gaining 6 hours a year, gained only 5 hours 48 m. 57 sec, and in four years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 
48 sec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted too soon by 44 minutes and 12 seconds ; of course, computed time, by this plan, lost 
44 m. 12 sec. every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec. every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of computed time, of one day ; i. e. com- 
puted time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 1582 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 13th 
attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the bissextile, every 100th year except- 
ing each 400th year. By the Julian year, computed time loses 11 m. 3 sec. a year, which makes about 19 hours in 100 years ; drop- 
ping the intercalary day on the 100th year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours ; dropping it on the 
next 100th year gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third 100th year; and in this way computed time gains 
of actual time, in 300 years, 15 hours ; if on the next 100th year, i. e. the fourth, the intercalary day be inserted, computed time 
loses for that century 19 hours; but to meet this loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each, and in all 15 
hours, so that the loss is only (19—15) 4 hours at the end of 400 years. By this method the difference between computed and actual 
time cannot amount to a day in 2500 years. In this system, called the Gregorian Calendar, the years 1600, 2000, 2400 are inter- 
calary; and the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, &c, not.— The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Portu- 
gal, and Italy; and during the same year in France; in Catholic Germany, in 15S3; in Protestant Germany and Denmark, in 1700; 
in Sweden, 1753. In England it was adopted in 1752, by act of Parliament directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14th, as 
computed time had lost 11 days. This was called the change from Old to New Style.— In 1832, Russia was said to be the only country 
where the Julian year or the Old Style was used. It is, however, retained in the Greek and Armenian churches. (Miss. Herald, for 
Dec. 1835, p. 454.)— On the Gregorian Calendar, see Ch. Clavius, Romani Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P. M. restituti Explicatio. 

Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one time 
considered it as beginning in March, but afterwards in January. The Greeks placed its com- 
mencement in Hecatombffion, at the summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin it at 
the 25th of March. The same was practiced in England and the American colonies until A. D. 1752, 
on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. 

§ 193. Cycles. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division 
of time into days, months, and years, great advantage is derived from the inven- 
tion of Cycles. These are periods of time so denominated from the Greek kvkXos, a 
circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term 
cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period of 4 years ; the Octae- 
teris, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Lustrum, a period of 5 years; and also the 
Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, compre- 
hended in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed the cycle of 
Gregory. — Besides these, it seems important to mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar 
Cycle, the Cycle of Indiction, and the Julian Period. 

See F . Nolan, as cited § 205. — H. Dodwcll, de veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis, &c. Dissert, decern. Lond. 1701. 4.— 
Nicbuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist, of Home, vol. i. p. 209. ed. Phil. 1835. 

§ 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommodate the 
computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or adjust the solar 
and lunar years. The nearest division of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve 



P. I. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 63 

lunations (which make the lunar year} fall short of the solar year by about 11 days. 
Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it 
did on the preceding year; e. g. if in September of the present year full moon occurs 
on the 16th. the corresponding full moon of the next year will occur on the oth of Sep- 
tember. — Hence every 3-ear the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by 
the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the 
same time. 

This Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 430. 
Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar years ($ 189), and this im- 
provement was at the time received with universal approbation ; but not being perfectly accu- 
rate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of 
Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it was 
discontinued when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. "The Council of Nice, however, 
wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of the sun, 
with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the purpose; 
and from its great utility they caused the numbers of it to be written on the calendar in golden 
letters, which has obtained for it the name of the Golden Number." The name of Golden Mttm- 
ber is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanac. 

§ 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 23 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the 
week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consists of 52 weeks and 
one day. it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let the seven letters 
A, B, C, D. E. F. G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied 
to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A wili stand 
for Monday, and Sunday coming on the ?th day will be represented by G, the 7th let- 
ter. The "year will end with Monday, as it began with it ; and A, the next year, will 
stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6th day of the year, and be represented 
by F. Thus the year will commence one day later every common year, and Sunday 
will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retrograde order, G. F, E, 
&c, and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year, or there were no leap year, the 
year would., after seven years, again begin on Monday, the same day with the first 
year supposed. But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and tico days, interrupts the 
regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is 
not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. 

This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the 
Dominical Letter. Chronologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the 
seven days of the week; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter which represents 
Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- 
nomical books. 

§ 196. The Cycle of hidiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and primary use 
of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have 
been established by Constantine the Great, in the fourth century, as a period at the end 
of which a certain tribute should be paid by the different provinces of the empire. Pub- 
He acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle. 

The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the 
Julian Period, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a com- 
mon language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which 
should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years might be easily 
applied. To accomplish this, he combined the three cycles of the moon. sun. and in- 
diction. multiplying 19, 23 and 15 into one another, which produces 7930, after which 
all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same 
number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin 
church, and tracing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together 
was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year of the Chris- 
tian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. 

This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowledged epoch, or fixed 
year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary. 
Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed 
standard. 



II. — Of fixing the Dates of historical events and arranging them in order. 

<> 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign 
the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of this part 
we shall notice the following topics ; {A) The methods employed to ascertain the dates 
of events, or the time when they occurred ; {B) The epochs and eras which have been 
employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological rabies 
and charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical Chronology. 

§ 198. (A) Methods employed to ascertain the dates of events. — Here we observe, 



64 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we will notice that furnished by 
observations on generations of men or successions of Kings. — It has been supposed 
that the average length of a king's reign, or of a generation of men, may be estimated 
by comparing a sufficient number of facts. — When this average is taken, and we are 
told by a writer how many generations lived, or how many kings reigned, between two 
events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either event is 
known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest 
writers, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it. Gene- 
rally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; three of them 
equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Newton employed this means of ascertaining dates, and 
maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 years ; and for generations, 
29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33, if reckoned by others. On these 
principles he attempted to rectify ancient chronology, giving to many events a date 
more recent than other authors. 

It may be desirable to give a further explanation of this method by two illustrations, (a) The 
date of the return of the Heraclidee to Peloponnesus is disputed ; but the date of the Battle of 
Thermopylae is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a suc- 
cession of 17 kings; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return 
of the Heraclidse B. C. (480 plus 340) 820; a date 280 years later than as given by other chrono- 
logers.— (ft) The date of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hippocrates, living at the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from ^Esculapius by father's side, and 19th from 
Hercules by mother's side, and that iEsculapius and Hercules were both Argonauts ; that is, 
there were 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two events. Taking the 
medium 17£ and multiplying by 29 gives 567; making the date of the Argonautic Expedition, 
B. C. (431 plus 567) 998 ; 326 later than by other chronologers. 

But there are two grand objections to this method of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccuracy 
and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Secondly, 
the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kings or giving a genealogy, often omit 
several of the series. This is done in Matthew, ch. i., for the sake of reducing the number of 
generations between the great epochs mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly fourteen. 

§ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and changes. This method is 
in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomical principles perfectly 
settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes. 

(a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are re- 
corded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events in history, 
and described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who can calculate 
with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. 

We will give illustrations. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syra- 
cusans, says that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, determined 
to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse ; but when everything was ready for sailing, the moon was 
eclipsed, for it was then full moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with 
alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. 
This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation, 
that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have 
been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers 

the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also 

determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf. P. V. $218). 

In a similar way, Ferguson, in his Astronomy, proposes to fix the time of the birth of Christ. It is evident from Matthew ii. 13- 
15, 20, 21, that Christ was born only some months before the death of Herod ; and from Josephus (B. xvii. ch. 8) we learn that there 
was an eclipse of the moon at the time of Herod's last sickness ; astronomical calculation shows that the eclipse occurred March 13, 
in the year 4710 of the Julian Period ; hence the birth of Christ could not have been later than about the close of the 4709th of the 
Julian Period. — The same author refers to the mention made by Phlegon (cf. P. V. § 238) of a most extraordinary eclipse of the sun 
as occurring in the 4th year of the 202d Olympiad, and would employ it as a help in determining the dale of Christ's death ; since no 
natural eclipse could occur the year specified, which corresponds, according to Ferguson, to the 4746lh of the Julian Period, he thinks 

the event mentioned by Phlegon was the supernatural darkness that marked the Savior's crucifixion. In Playfair's System of 

Chronology, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c), is a list of eclipses that were observed before the Christian era, also, in Ferguson's Astronomy. 

Mere Lunar appearances may be employed in the same way. By comparing Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xviii. 28, 
it would seem evident that the crucifixion was on Friday, and at the time of the Passover ; it is known from other sources (cf. Jose- 
phus, Ant. B. iii. ch. 10) that the Passover was kept on the day of the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Ferguson says be 
found by calculation that " Ihe only Passover full moon that fell on Friday, for several years before or after the disputed year of the 
crucifixion, was on April 3d, in the 4746th year of the Julian Period." — Cf. Ferguson, as cited § 203. 

(b) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator 
crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same from year to year ; but they move back- 
ward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree in 72 years. If, then, the 
place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine 
the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the place 
it then held, and allowing 72 years for a degree. The only objection to this method is 
the difficulty, perhaps impossibility of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did 
occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history. 

Sir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A 
sphere, representing the heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient writers to have been 
formed for the Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed in 
the middle point in the sign Aries. In the year 1689, the equinox had gone back from that point 



P. I. EPOCHS AND ERAS. 65 

36 degrees 44 minutes : this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years between 
the year 1689 and the Expedition ; making it B. C. 955; nearly the same as by the calculation 

from generations by the same author. If it be stated how a star rises or sets in relation to the 

sun, the place of the equinox may be found, and dates ascertained, in the way just mentioned. — 
Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to ascertain the time when Hesiod lived. In 
a passage in the Works and Days [vs. 564], Hesiod says, that ^returns rose at sunset, 60 days 
after the sun entered the winter solstice, a point 90 degrees distant from the equinox. — But the 
place of the equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this way; because it cannot be cer- 
tainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, whether he 
means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star he means exactly. Cf. Costard, 
in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. p. 2. 

§ 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins, medals, monuments, and 
inscriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. These often throw 
great light upon historical events, and afford important aid in ascertaining the time of 
their occurrence. Interesting facts are sometimes first made known, and the period 
when they took place is often indicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations 
on a public monument. — Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most 
valuable of these we must mention the chronicle of Faros, which fixes the date of the 
chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander. (See 
P. IV. §91.4.) 

% 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who state the 
distance between events, or between events and un epoch. The early historians paid 
very little attention to the subject of chronology ; it was not until a comparatively late 
period, that they began to think of dates and distances of time. The principal -frag- 
ments of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are still to be 
found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, and the Stromata of Clemens Alexandrinus. The 
waitings of the Byzantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly the chronologi- 
cal work (EtcXoyfi Xpovoypa<pias) of Syncellus. It is chiefly from this and the above- 
mentioned work of Eusebius, that the details of the commonly received Chronology have 
been gathered. (Cf. § 205 ; and P. V. § 236, 239, 288.) 

§ 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology. — It is essential to correct and 
exact chronology that there should be some fixed epoch, to which all events may be 
referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is of comparatively little 
consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and acknowledged, as it is perfectly 
easy to compute in a retrograde manner the time before it, as well as in a direct man- 
ner the time after it. An epoch is distinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of 
time which is taken as a starting-place from which to reckon, and taken usually be- 
cause signalized by some important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the 
epoch ; the series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as 
nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. 

$ 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology. 
— (a) Era of Olympiads. The Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but after- 
wards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. They began 776 B. C. A new 
Olympiad era, however, came into use under the Roman emperors, beginning A. D. 
131. — (b) Era of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by the year 
of the consul or the emperor. The building of the city was their grand epoch. This 
teas 752 B.C. (It is placed by some 753 or 754.) — (c) Era of Nabonassar (or Belesis). 
Used by some historians; the commencement of Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 747 
B. C. — (d) Era of the Seleucido3. From the reign of Seleucus and his descendants in 
Syria. The Jews chiefly used this. The Nestorians still compute from it. (Researches 
of Smith and Dwight, vol. ii. p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B.C. when Seleucus 
recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the kingdom of Syria. 
— (e) Era of Diocletian. This was founded on the persecution of Christians in the 
reign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the Christian era was adopted. 
It began 284 A. D. — (/) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; founded on the flight of 
Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. — (g) The Persian Era, or Era of Yezde- 
jerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. — (h) The 
Christian Era ; Annus Domini; the year of our Lord. This era is founded on 
the birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some 
placing it ss-ven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, however, is 
of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, because all, who 
adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same numerical date ; all 
meaning (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. The era began to be used 
about A. D. 360, according to some writers; but others state that it was invented by 
Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. 

On the Christian Era, see /. Priestley, Lectures on History, L. xiv.— /. Guil. Jani, Historia iErce Dionysian:e — G. Hamberger, De 
Epochas Christians; ortu et auctore.— Manne, Dissertation on the Birth of Christ.— Cf. Lardncr, Credibility of the Gospel, &c. Part 1. 
vol. ii. p. 796.— Ferguson's Astronomy, by D. Brewster, Phil. 1817. 2 vols. 8. i. 460-65. 

Perhaps we should mention here the Era of the French Republic, which the revolutionists attempted to establish. This was intro- 
duced in 1793, with a formal rejection of the Sabbath and of the hebdominal week, and a novel arrangement and pedantic nomen- 
clature of the months. The twenty-second of September was fixed as the beginning of the year. The year consisted of twelve 
months of thirty days each ; which were divided, not by weeks, but into three decades, or periods of ten days. As this would com- 

9 f2 



66 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

prise but 360 days, five were added at the close of the last month of the year, called complementary days ; and at the close of everv 
fourth or bissextile year, a sixth, called the day of the Republic. The cycle of the four years was termed the Franciade. The 
three months of A u t u m n were named Vindemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire ; those of W i n t e r, Nivose, Pluviose, Pentose ; those 
of Spring, Germinal, Florial, Prairial; those of Summer, Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor. This infidel calendar was used 
about twelve years. The Gregorian was restored January 1, 1806. 

; § 204. (C) Systems of Arrangement and Chronological Tables: — There is a great 
discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have been advocated in 
different nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations there was a strong 
desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronolo- 
gical dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, 
Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or 
thousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed 
here. (Cf. P. IV. § 21.) 

§ 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the 
other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the student's atten- 
tion. They differ from each other considerably ; that drawn from the Septuagint 
assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew ; 
e. g. the former places the flood some hundred years further from the Christian era, 
and the Creation at least 600 years further from the Flood, than the latter. There has 
been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two 
systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. 

The system of Archbishop UsJier is the basis of the principal systems for chronolo- 
gical tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general 
accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the Arundelian Marbles, 
and the Chronicon of Eusebius. 

The system of Sir Isaac Newton has already been mentioned, and some of the methods em- 
ployed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many important events, particularly of 
Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. His chronology was at first 
received with "some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. 

On this, see Mitford's Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append.— Cf. Shuckford's Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Pref.— For the titles of 
some of the most important helps on the subject of Chronology, see P. V. § 7. 7 (c); § 299. 6.— For others, we refer to Home's 
Intro, to Crit. Study of Holy Script, vol. ii. p. 730. — A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by Rev. J. J. Jackson, 
in his Chronological Antiquities. — See also Fred. Nolan, on the antiquity and connection of the early cycles, and their utility in 
settling the differences of chronologists, in Trans, of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. iii. Lond. 1837. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. 
—A. B. Chapin, Agreement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaldean Chronologies. New Haven, 1839. pp. 16.— Cf. Christ. 
Spect. June, 1837, and Dec. 1838.— Marsham, as cited p. V. § 236. 

§ 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and 
chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gra- 
dually and slowly by description ; the locality of events and dates on the paper also 
helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself 
of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is bet- 
ter) by actually forming one himself. 

$ 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or less degrees 
of utility.— (a) One of the most simple and obvious plans is to form two perpendicular columns; 
one for events of every kind ranged promiscuously in order of occurrence ; the other for their cor- 
responding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biography. — (6) Another 
plan of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular columns ; one for dates, 
and each of the others for a class of events: e. g. sovereigns in one, remarkable events in an* 
other, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Worcester's Charts. Both the plans men- 
tioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines. — (c) A third plan is the contrivance of a 
sort of tree, whose branches represent nations ; and events are ranged in them according to 
their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chronology delineated. Con- 
quests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch receiving others into 
itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from others. — (d) A fourth plan is 
marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited on each side by prominent events. 
Such is Goodrich's Chart. — (e) A fifth plan, worthy of notice, is that devised by Emma Willard, 
called "Perspective sketch of the course of Empire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree 
inverted ; the earliest events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being sub- 
stituted instead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to indicate the com- 
parative rank and- culture of different nations. {Willard' s Atlas. Hartford, 1836.) 

But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults ; 1. equal length 
of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart; 2. duration is represented by perpendi- 
cular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory repre- 
sentation. — (/) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division into 
periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing, where the scale is 
large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. The chief objection 
to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the important 
events of some periods without increasing too much the size of the chart, and rendering it in- 
convenient for portable use.^(g) A seventh plan unites geography with the history and chrono- 
logy. This method is exhibited in Priestley's " Specimen of a New Chart of History," given in 
his Lectures on History. — (h) The device of a combination of streams or rivers is employed in a 
recent chart by /. /. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches by 27. 

§ 208. (D) Actual Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions more per- 
plexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than the difficulty of re- 
membering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair. 



P. I. BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHRONOLOGY. 67 

But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology is essential to the utility, 
and it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. And the difficulty complained 
of is by no means insuperable. 

Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented ($ 210) ; but on the whole, 
the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole field of past time, 
select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, associate these events with 
their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making them as 
familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any •person of common capacity can do this ; 
and the student who wishes to lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must 
do at least as much as this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to 
locate the various events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their 
proper place between these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. 

§ 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desirable to include 
modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. 

The learner is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose; using a hori- 
zontal line to represent the flowing or progress of time. Let this line be divided into equal sjyaces, 
each representing an equal length of time ; let the dates of the events he distinctly written 
exactly at the points in the line where they belong according to this equal division; and letjhe 
events also be written directly above or under the dates. 

Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes the whole time before 
Christ, comprehending 4004 years. Modern includes the whole time since Christ. 

I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood; Antediluvian ages, the 
portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood. — The Antediluvian 
ages may be considered as containing only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight 
periods. The grand events and periods are the following. 

Of the Antediluvian ages, 

The one period is from Creation E. C. 4004, 

to Deluge B. C. 2348. 

Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 
1st period, is from Deluge .... to Calling of Abraham 
%l period, from Calling of Abraham . . to Escape of Israelites . 
2d period, from Escape of Israelites . . to Building of Temple . 
4th period, from Building of Temple . . to Founding of Rome 
5th period, from Founding of Rome . .to Battle of Marathon 
6th period, from Battle of Marathon . . to Reign of Alexander 
"tth period, from Reign of Alexander . . to Capture of Carthage 
8th period, from Capture of Carthage . . to Coming of Christ. 

II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the Fall of Rome and the 
Fall of Constantinople: Early Ages, the portion before the Fall of Rome; Middle Ages, the por- 
tion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Recent Ages, the portion since 
the Fall of Constantinople.— The early ages may be considered as containing two periods; the 
middle ages, five periods; and the recent ages Jive periods. The grand events and periods are 
the following. 

Of the Early ages, the 
1st period, is from Christ . . . to the Reign of Constantine 

2d period, from Reign of Constantine . to Fall of Rome 

Of the Middle ages, the 

1st period, is from Fall of Rome . . . to Flight of Mahomet . 

Id period, from Flight of Mahomet . . to Crowning of Charlemagne 

3d period, from Crowning of Charlemagne . to Landing of William 

4th period, from Landing of William . . to Overthrow of Saracens . 

5th period, from Overthrow of Saracens . to Fall of Constantinople . A. D. 1453. 

Of the Recent ages, the , 

1st period is from Fall of Constantinople . to Abdication of Charles Fifth . A. D. 1556; 

Id period, from Abdication of Charles 5th . to Restoration of Charles Second a. D. 1660; 

3d period, from Restoration of Charles 2d . to Independence of United States A. D. 1776; 
5th period, from Independence of United States to Downfall of Bonaparte . A. D. 1815; 

5th period, from Downfall of Bonaparte . to the Present Time. 

$ 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above 
alluded to Q 208), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We will 
briefly notice three different systems of artificial memory. 

I. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Technica has generally met with the most 
favorable reception. "As this method," says Priestley, "is so easily learned and may be of 
such use in recollecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will 



B.C. 


1921; 


B.C. 


1492; 


B.C. 


1004; 


B.C. 


752; 


B. C. 


490; 


B. C. 


336; 


B.C. 


146; 



A. 


D. 


306; 


A. 


D. 


476. 


A. 


D. 


622; 


A. 


D. 


800; 


A. 


D. 


1066; 


A. 


I). 


1258; 



68 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

not take the small degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves master of it." The ex- 
pedient is to substitute letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and asso- 
ciate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose birth, reign, death, or the like, you 
wish to remember, or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remem- 
bered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical 
characters has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong-; 1, a b; 2, e d; 3, ti; 4,/ o; 5, 1 u; 6, s au ; 
7, p oi ; 8, k ei; 9, n ou ; 0, z y. To remember the date of the founding of Rome by this system, 
substitute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752; e. g. p u d, 
and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome, or a part of the word, thus Rom-pud. The 
very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. To 
remember the date of the Deluge, 2348, we may form the word J)e\-etok; of the battle of Mara- 
thon, 490, M-drnth-ony, or Mara-/«wz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be 
fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in 
Hexameter verses; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to me- 
mory ; these are called memorial lines. 

See R. Grey's Memoria Tec/mica, or Method of artificial Memory. (With Lowe's Mnemonics.) Lond. 1812. S. Cf. Lond. 
Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 

2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of letters 
for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a 
room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects ; and conceive these places as ar- 
ranged in a certain fixed order; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to 
remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, into 
these conceived places. Such is the principle of F e i n a i g 1 e's Art of Memory. By this a four- 
sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares ; these who wish a more capacious memory may 
take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one may go 
on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. Nine squares are to be placed on the 
floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-five; the other five on 
the ceiling above : the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put 
on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares from 11 
to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall opposite in 
front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it; the square 30, and the next 
nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand; and the square 40, and the next 
nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In 
each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a pump; in 2, a swan; 
in 3j a man xising a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to be committed 
to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of Eng- 
land, he would create in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these 
pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate 
the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the square to which he falls ; in form- 
ing the new picture two things are important ; it should be so conceived as to have some casual 
or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and suggesting at the same time a word or 
phrase; which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the 
date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of 
Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good one for the purpose; the square to 
which he is assigned is 29; the picture fixed in this square (in the engraved illustration of the 
system) is a woman spinning on a small wheel; these two pictures then are to be somehow bound 
together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens ; the next thing is to form a word 
or phrase indicative of the date ; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, " The oa&raW" 
is such a phrase ; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory, is to bind the 
phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the woman spinning sees 7 hens 
on The oak rail.— The following is the substitution alphabet; 1, be; %df; 3,gh; 4,jkz; 5,1; 
Q,mn; 7,yq; 8, r s ; 9,tv; 0,wx; #nd 100, St ; 1,000, Th ; 100,000, Y. 

See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of F e i n a i g 1 e, illustrated by engravings. Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. 
Lond. Quart. Rev. as above cited. 

It, is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a 
system of topical memory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various parts 
of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of Feinaigle. 
The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being 
arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house; "they assign," says he, 
" the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall ; then they go round 
the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associations to the bedrooms and anterooms, 
but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these associations, they recur mentally 
to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they had en- 
trusted to each particular spot, and this type at once suggests the idea connected with it." 

3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of 
letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere bar- 
barous and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image 
or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be 
remembered, and concludes with a word or phrase that expresses something characteristic of 
the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes 
the date. The alphabet of Hailworth is the following; 1, be; %df; 3,g,h,gh; \,kl; 5,mn; 
6,p,r; 7,ssh; 8,t,ch; 9, v wj, used as consonants; 0, th ph wh, and also q x y z. Informing 
words the vowels are used just as may be convenient, without having any significancy ; the con- 
sonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thus ch u rch [ch r eh] signifies 868 ; troop 
[t, r p~\, 866. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is 
formed ; The deluge comes and men die guilty: the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the 
consonants d g 1 1 represent 2348.— For greater convenience and scope in forming the character- 
istic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and conjunctions to be used, like the vowels, 
without significancy ; e g. Abel fell a sacrifice to Cain's hate and sin: h t s n, 3875. — Mr. Hall- 
worth has taught his system by lectures in different parts of the country, and has published 
several little books in which its principles are explained and applied. 

See T. Hallworth's Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge. 



P. I. EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 69 

N. York, 1824.— HdllwortHs method applied to General Ancient History.— Also to Sacred History, &c— History of the United 
States. 

§ 211. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events in 
ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal stales 
of ancient times. — We will mention first those whose capitals were in Asia. The prin- 
cipal Asiatic states or kingdoms were eight ; the Assyrian; the Jewish; the Trojan ; 
the Lydian ; the Phoenician ; the Persian ; the Syrian ; and the Parthian. 



I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the building 
of Babylon by Nimkod, B.C. 2217. The 1st period of its history may be that from 
Nimrod to Ninias, B. C. 1945. 

In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninus. Under her the em- 
pire gained its greatest extent ; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and the Indus, 
including Persia, Media, and Bactriana : comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria, and 
Asia Minor to the Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by Mount Caucasus, and on the 
south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the 
three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Baby- 
lonia. 

The 2d period may be that from Ninias to Sardanapalus, who died B.C. 747. 

This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are 
said to have reigned. — On the death of Sardanapalus three kingdoms were formed out of the em- 
pire ; the Assyrian, with Nineveh as its capital ; the Babylonian, with Babylon for its capital ; 
and the Median, with Ecbatana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the 
Assyrian monarchy as still continuing; and 

The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 68], 
During this period of 66 years, 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the last; 
and 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately con- 
nected with that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the 
three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian. 

The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cyrus the Great, B.C. 536. 

At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. — At the same time, also, Cyrus 
united to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the 
death of Sardanapalus. 

For a general view of the Assyrian history; Rollin's Ancient History, bk. iii. — MilloVs Elements of History, vol. i. p. 62. (Ed. 
Edinb. 1823. 5 vols. 8.)— The English Universal History. Lond. 1779-83. 50 vols. 8. (IS vols. Ancient.) vol. iii.— Prideaux, 
Connection of the 0. and N. Testament, (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.) — Berosus, &c. in Cory, cited P. V. § 236. — 
Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, &c. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

Transl. from his Ideen, cited P. IV. § m.—Sainte Croix, La ruine de Babylon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 1. For 

Assyria, and likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Heeren's States of Antiquity, cited § 215. 6. 
— Cf. also Meusel, cited P. V. § 210. 



II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B. C. 1921. 
It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from Abraham to the 
entrance into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451. M 

During this period they remained a nomadic nation. 

The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B.C. 1060. 

During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel 
was the last of the judges. Saul, the first king, was anointed as such some time before Samuel's 
death. 

The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms 
of Judah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. 

This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of David 
and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital.— Respecting these 
reigns, see Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 528. 

The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restoration from 
the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. 

The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten 
tribes of Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Shalmanazar, B. C. 721; 
the two tribes of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 606. During this time nineteen kings reigned 
over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of 
Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. 

The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of the 
Jews to Alexander, B. C. 332. 

During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the 
throne of Persia. 

The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independent 
monarchy under the Maccabees, B.C. 168. 

After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were 
claimed by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both.— The perse- 



70 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

cution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the re-establishmeni of 
independence. 

The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference under 
Pompet, B. C. 63. 

During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. 

The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final Destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 

For the Jewish history ; The historical books of the 0. Testament.— Josephus (cf. P. V. § 243.). — Berruyer, Histoire du peuple do 
Dieu, &c. Par. 1742. 10 vols. 8.—Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, &c. Haye, 1716. 15 vols. 12.— Prideaux, Connect, of the 0. and 
N. Testament. The French translation, said to be better than the English original, is entitled Histoire des Juifs et des peirples 
voisins depuis la decadence des Royaumes d'Israel et do Juda, &c. Amst. 1725. 5 vols. 8.—/. L. Bauer, Handbuch der Geschichte 
der Hebr. Nation, &c. Numb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable.— H. H. Milman, History of the Jews, (Am. ed.) N. V. 1830. 3 vols. 18. 
Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xxiii. p. 234.— Jahn, Hebrew Commonwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E. Slowe. And. 1828. 8. 



III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as 
early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say that the state was 
destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. 

The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. II. $ 132.— Mitford's 
Greece, ch. i. 



IV. The Ly dian. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties of kings 
are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of Crcssus ; 
and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B.C. 536. 

The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful ; its 
fate was decided by the battle of Thymbra. 

For the Lydian history ; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited.— Freret, on the battle of Thymbra, with a plate, 
in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. vi. p. 532, 



V. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king 
named Abikal, B.C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of Tyre by Alex- 
ander, B. C. 332. 

Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities 
with petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. 

On the Phoenician history ; Sanconiathon, &c. cf. P. V. § 238.— Rets, Cyclopaedia, under Phoenice.—Mignot, Sur les Pheniciens 
(several dissertations), in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vols, xxxiv-xlii. — The English Univ. Hist. — Also, 11th vol. of Heeren's Works. 
Gbtt 1824. 



VI The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant until the time 
of Cyrus the elder, B. C. 536. We may include the whole history after this date in 
two periods. 

The 1st period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Greece, and was de- 
feated in the famous Battle of SaMmis, B. C. 480. 

In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained its 
greatest extent; reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Jaxartes and Mount Caucasus on the 
north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Lybia. The capitals were Babylon, Susa, 
Ecbatana, and Persepolis (cf. $$ 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes in one and 
sometimes another of these places. 

The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alex- 
ander, in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. 

About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the younger Cyrus, described in the 
Anabasis of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401.— Alexander completed the 
subjugation of Persia by the victory at Arbela, B. C. 331. 

For the Persian history ; Rollings Anc. Hist. bk. iv. and following. — MilloVs Elements, vol. i. p. 88, ed. before cited.— The Unx- 
versal History, before cited, vol. iv. and ix.— Brissonius, de regno Persarum. 1591. 8. — Hyde, Rhode, SfC cited P. V. § 183. 3. — 
Herdei-'s Persepolis, in his JVcrks.— Hea-en, as above cited.— Grotefend, &c. cited P. IV. § 18. i.—J. B. Frazer, Hist, of Persia, in 
Harper's Fam. Library, No. lxx.— Sir J. Malcolm, Hist, of Persia from the earliest period. &c. Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 2d ed. 



VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of the Seleucidce. This was one of the four 
monarchies formed out of the empire of Alexander. It was commenced after the 
battle of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its history in two 
periods. 

The 1st period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans 
in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190. 

The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the northern 
part of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except Bithynia ; Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, India, Per- 
sia, and the valley of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with the Romans espe- 
cially by protecting Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, deprived him of 
part of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom. 



P. I. TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGYPT AND CARTHAGE. 71 

The 2d period extends from Antiockus the Great to the complete conquest of Syria 
by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiaticus, B. C. 69. 

In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 168, 
in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.— The throne of this kingdom, on its 
overthrow by the Romans, had been held by twenty-three successive kings, most of them lawful 
heirs of the house of the Seleucidse. 

For the Syrian history; Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum, cited P. IV. § 93. l.—Fr'tilich, Annales reram Syrise. Vienn. 1754.— 
The Universal Hist, above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient. 



VIII. The Parthian; or Kingdom of the Arsacidm. The Parthians occupying 
the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when con- 
quered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucus 
Nicator. But under the third king of Syria they revolted and established an independ- 
ent kingdom under Arsaces, B. C. 256. 

The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans ; 
but could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian Ocean, and 
from Syria to the river Indus; including feactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of the 
Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hecatompylos. 

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who dethroned the 
Arsacidae, and established the kingdom of Modern Persia, A. D. 223. 

For the Parthian history ; Vaillant, as cited P. IV. § 93. — C. F. Richter, Historisch-kritischer Versuch Uber die Arsaciden-und- 
Sassaniden-Dynastie, &c. Lpz. 1804. 

§ 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we 
have but two of importance ; the Egyptian and the Carthaginian. 

I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is Menes, 
generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and grandson of Noah ; 
he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt 
commences. 

A high antiquity, in part surely fabulous, was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian 
works now lost; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus (cf. $ 201); the other, the work 
of Manetho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. V. $ 236). 

The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to the 
Escape of the Israelites, B.C. 1492. 

Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can 
be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers 
place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period ; some consider him to be the Pharaoh 
that was drowned in the Red Sea. 

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammeticus, B. C. 
670, when the history begins to be authentic. 

No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted 
for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures. — Twelve different governments under 
twelve different chiefs, are said to have been united under Psammeticus. 

The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt by 
the Persian king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C. 525. 

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. 
The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common. 

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest of Egypt 
by Alexander, B.C. 332. 

After the time of Cambyses, Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception 
of a few instances of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con- 
tinued subject to Persia until it now changed masters. 

The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Romans, 
resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt; and Ptolemy, after the 
death of Alexander, became king of the country, B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of the 
Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost 
it by the success of her lover's rival.— Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous 
periods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court. — 
Ejrvpt remained a part of the Roman empire until it was wrested away by the Saracens, 
AD. 640. 

For the Egyptian history ; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. i. — Marsham, as cited P. V. $ 236.— Champollion h jeune, L'Egypte sous 
Its Pbaraons, &c. Par. 1S14. 2 vois. 8. (for period before Cambyses.)— For the period after Alexander, Vaillant, Historia Plole- 

rm-eorum, cited P. IV. § 93. 1.— Champollion Figeac, Annales des Lagides, &c. Par. 1819. 2 vols. 8. Cf. MavorH Universal 

HiMory, vol. i. (ed. N. Y. 1S04. 25 vols 12.)— Also, the Universal History before cited, vol. i. and viii.— M. Russel, View of Egypt. 
— Cf. § 177, also P. IV. § 16 ; § 91. 8 ; § 231. 

II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally divided 
into three periods. 



72 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

The 1st period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880, to the beginning of the! 
wars of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B.C. 480. 

In this period the following points are worthy of notice : (a) the origin of the city Carthage, by 
aTyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled : (b) the pursuits of the people ; 
commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guinea, 
by caravans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world; (c) their 
conquests; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the 
Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles and 
Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa; the chief 
conquests were effected by Jllago, and his sons and grandsons ; (d) the form of government ; it 
was a republic, but of a strongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief 
magistrates called Suffetcs, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an 
Assembly of the people ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an 
aristocratic party; (e) the revenue; its sources were, 1. tributes from the subject cities and 
states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds of the mines 
in Spain. 

The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse to the 
beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, B. C. 264. 

The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to 
obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in 
almost constant wars. 

The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruction of 
Carthage, B. C. 146. 

The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both 
desired to own, furnished the occasion. — There were three wars called Punic ; each disastrous 
to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and 
splendid victories of Hannibal; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third lasted only 
about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had 
existed about 700 years. 

For the Carthaginian history; Rolliris Anc. Hist. bk. ii.— Hendrich, De Republica Carthaginiensium. 1664.— Harm, as cited 
above.— The Universal History, vol. xv. of the Ancient.— E'oltiger's Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. 



§ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned. 
Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will be ac- 
complished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome. 

I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years, 
from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. 
This whole space may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into 
six successive periods, each limited by distinguished events, and characterized by pro- 
minent circumstances. 

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civilization to 
the Trojan War, 1184 B.C., and from its peculiar characteristic may be denomi- 
nated fabulous. . 

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ; 
yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its 
first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the founda- 
tions of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon ab.out 1800 years B. C. Lit- 
tle advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, 
other colonies were planted, at Athens«by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about 
the time of Moses (P. IV. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable 
progress must have been made in cultivation. 

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period ; 
particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four 
sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic 
Council. — The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had 
been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to 
furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The ac- 
counts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in 
the various arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that 
singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous 
adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan 
war to the time when the regal form of government was abolished, about 1050 
B.C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the 
period of colonization. 

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such 
without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this 
we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the people, under a number 



P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. 73 

of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and oppres- 
sion. These evils seem to have led to the change in the form of Government, and the 
substitution of the popular instead of the regal system. The same evils also probably 
contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The 
emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. 
The earliest were the JEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north- 
western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the 
principal. The second were the Ionians, who went from Attica (originally called 
Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the iEolians, where Ephesus 
was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and 
Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the 
most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four princi- 
pal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf. P. V. % 4.) 

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the 
abolition of monarchy to the Beginning- of the Persian War, about 500 B. C. 

In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta; 
and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable 
political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as 
the period of laws. 

Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to 
her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years 
later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the 
task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. § 167; P. III. §§ 8, 9.)— The 
other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta 
with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of 
his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suf- 
fered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian 
general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame 
poet of Athens, Tyrtseus. (Cf. P. V. $ 53.) 

In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal 
authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to pro- 
mote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was assassinated at a public 
festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge 
by instigating the Persians to invade his native country. 

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persian War, 
460 B. C, a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked 
back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite 
examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest 
energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may 
properly be called the period of military glory. 

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian 
king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occa- 
sion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, 
the capital of Lydia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three suc- 
cessive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer 
any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea, 
secured immortal honor to the Greeks. — A succession of splendid names adorns the 
history of Athens during this period. Milfiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and 
Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried 
in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period 
of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the 
Greeks. Before it, there existed little union comparatively between the different 
states, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of 
Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the 
common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nominal head, 
but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found in the states- 
men of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred, 
and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece. 

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to the 
Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affairs 
of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth 
and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — But a spirit of luxurious refine- 
ment soon took the place of the disinterested patriotism of the preceding age, and the 

10 G 



74 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This 
may be designated as the period of luxury. 

The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One of 
these is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta, termed the Peloponnesian. 
Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell a victim to the terrible 
plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suc- 
cessively gained the predominant influence. The war was continued with slight in- 
termissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle 
of iEgos Potamos, B.C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained 
a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in 
Greece, and was deprived even of her own liberties. Her walls were thrown down, 
and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, however, the 
Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B.C. the Thirty were expelled. 

The same year was remarkable for two other events. The first was the accusation 
of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial 
for some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to 
the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V. § 171). The other memorable event was the 
expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of 
Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from 
Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 
10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simpli- 
city. — The assistance which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them 
in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, 
gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, 
Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even 
united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the 
Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This 
war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, 
and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks. 

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, 
were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the as- 
cendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two 
distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — But a war with Sparta shortly 
consummated her glory and exhausted her strength ; she gained a brilliant victory in 
the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C, but was in the same instant ruined by the 
death of her general Epaminondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states, 
Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, 
reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, 
already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian 
states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B.C. 357. (Cf. P. III. $ 72.) This 
commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans 
and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly 
after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in 
which the council of Amphictyons appointed Philip, king of Macedon, as general and 
leader of their confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized 
a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of 
Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse 
them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. 
The battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece. 

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of 
Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chae- 
ronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent his- 
tory exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent 
province. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fall. 

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and autocrat of 
Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. 
Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march 
from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of 
Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; but every reader will regret his follies at Per- 
sepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years 
after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels 
among his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests were 
terminated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising Ma- 
cedonia and Greece ; a second Thrace and Bithynia ; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, 
Palestine, and Ccelosyria ; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the 
rest of Asia, even to the Indus. 

To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to 



P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 75 

arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousy between the 
states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their exertions fruitless. All 
that is really honorable and memorable in the proper affairs of the Greeks at this 
period, is found in the history of the Achaean league. — The Achaean league was origi- 
nally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, eslablished very early, 
when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took 
scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral 
even in the Peloponnesian war. 

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B.C. Subse- 
quently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presi- 
dency of Philopcemen, B.C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that 
its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the other states at 
this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece 
might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by 
one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced 
the opportunity, and shortly alter this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his 
triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C. 

Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an in- 
stant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this 
destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult 
upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was 
taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed to the flames and consumed to 
ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a 
'province of Home. 

The principal helps in the ttudy of the Grecian history are mentioned, P. V. § 7. 7. (d). — A good elementary work is PinnocVs 
improved edition of G o 1 d s m i t h's History of Greece. &c. Fhilad. 1S36. 12.— A valuable text-book and guide to deeper research ; 
.5. H. L. Heeren, States of Antiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1828. 8.— For the later periods of Gre- 
cian history ; /. Gast, Hist, of Greece from accession of Alexander till the final subjection to the Romans. Loud. 17S2. 4. — Breiter- 
laucli. Geschichte der Achaer und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 1782. 



§ 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 
years; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 

1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, to 
the Expulsion of Takquin, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of the Kings, or 
of Regal Power. 

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning with 
the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from 
iEneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman 
history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether 
fabulous. (P. V. § 510.) — Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. §§ 193, 240). 
One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution 
effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He 
divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a 
much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. III. § 252.) 
— The reign of the second king, Numa ; is remembered, on account of his influence on 
the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several 
classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was 
of very limited extent, and the people were often involved in war with the several 
states in their immediate vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in 
the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed 
the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and 
the overthrow of the regal government. 

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the Ple- 
beians were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B.C. At the beginning of 
this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had be- 
come a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as the 
period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. 

Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised almost 
precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or com- 
mon people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants from the Senators or 
Patres. — The first step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, 
which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from the 
magistrate to the people. Under the protection of this law, the people, discontented 
with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies, 
which the wars with the neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patri- 
cians to invent a new office ; that of Dictator (P. III. $ 248). But the dissatisfaction 



76 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

of the Plebeians was not to be thus removed. They united with the army and with- 
drew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating the office of 
Tribunes, who were to be chosen annually from the Plebeians, and to possess the power 
of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and even the Senate. (P. III. § 245.) — ■ 
This arrangement only led to new dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their 
object to oppose the Consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually en- 
croaching upon the Patrician. — In a few years another fundamental change was effected. 
The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius Tullius, been 
transacted at the Comitia Centuriata, or assemblies voting by centuries. It was now, 
B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in the Comitia Tributa, or 
assemblies voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians held the control. 

The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy between 
the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring it. This was the 
Decemvirate, B. C. 45 L, which superseded both consuls and tribunes, but continued 
only three years, and then the two other offices were restored. — In a few years the 
people made another advance, the Senate conceding, that six military tribunes, three 
Patrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — Another 
office was created during this period, the censorship; two Censors being appointed to 
take the census of the people every five -years, and to watch over the public morals, — 
But this office dpes not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had it 
any influence in healing the dissensions between the higher and lower orders (cf. 
P. III. § 247) . 

One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They were 
not eligible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove this disability 
they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many years, and occa- 
sioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in their complete success ; as they 
gained admission to the consulship, the censorship, and finally to the priesthood, and 
thus obtained a virtual equality with the Patricians about B. C. 300. 

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in fre- 
quent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the Etrurians, 
under king Porsenna, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, "a war fertile in exploits 
of romantic heroism." — The second was with the city Veii, a proud rival of Rome. It 
was at last taken by Camillus, B. C. 390, after a siege of ten years.— The last was 
with the Gauls, who invaded Italy under Brennus, and are said to have taken Rome 
and burned it to the ground, B.C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the cla- 
mors of the populace to go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy 
flight the barbarian conquerors. 

3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph of the Ple- 
beians to the Capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. 

Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and had 
extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The admission of Ple- 
beians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the consolidation and 
strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon commenced. This may 
be remembered as the period of the Punic Wars, or of Foreign Conquests. 

The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which resulted 
from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian colonies 
(§ 50), and contained at this time several cities, flourishing, wealthy, and refined by 
letters and the arts. On their invitation Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, passed over 
from Greece with a large army and a train of elephants to aid them against the Ro- 
mans, and was for a time successful, but finally, being totally defeated at the battle 
of Beneventum, B..C. 274, fled precipitately to his own dominions. The allied states 
and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy. 

She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily became an 
object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into contact with Carthage, 
which was now flourishing and powerful. The Carthaginians had settlements in 
Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the dominion of the whole island. Hence 
sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. Sicily was chiefly settled by Greek colo- 
nies. These colonies preferred independence, but, situated between Rome on one 
side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, and had only the 
alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in 
the first Punic war, which began B. C. 264, and was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty 
exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra- 
cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government.— The 
tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Punic war. 

After a peace of twenty-three years, the second Punic war began in the siege of 
Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city, Hannibal 
crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a victorious 



P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 77 

army. The Romans were defeated in three engagements before the memorable 
battle of Cannae, in which they were completely conquered, and 40,000 of their troops 
left dead on the field. But after the battle of Cannae the Carthaginians gained no ad- 
vantages. A king of Macedon came to their aid in vain. — Scipio, a Roman general, 
having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls 
of Carthage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly 
defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second Punic war 
ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war Syracuse in Sicily took part 
with the Carthaginians, and was on that account besieged by the Romans. It was 
ably defended by the scientific genius of Archimedes, but at length taken by Marcel- 
lus, and made a part of the province of Sicily, B. C. 212. 

The result of the second Punic war may be considered as the occasion which car- 
ried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the pro- 
tection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which compelled the king to 
cede to the, Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. — The interference 
of the lung of Macedon in the second Punic war also furnished the ground for a war 
with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of Greece. A few years 
after, the Romans-, on the pretence of aiding the JEtolians, subjected Macedonia, B. C. 
167. The Achaean league preserved the southern portions of the country a little 
longer ; but in twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the 
capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. 

Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged a tJiird Punic 
war, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate struggle with 
the Numidians. The third Punic war continued but about three years, and termi- 
nated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under circumstances of aggravated cruelty 
and faithlessness on the part of the Romans. 

4. The fourth period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth to the 
establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 
D uring this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic disturb- 
ances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the Civil Wars. 

The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances which grew 
out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to check the 
growing corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstances of the people : but 
both fell victims to their own zeal and the hatred of their enemies, Tiberius 133, and 
Caius 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ardent patriotism; others to 
mere ambition. (Cf. Niebuhr's Rome, cited P. V. § 299. 7.) Not long after the fall of 
Gracchus arose the Social war, by which the states of Italy demanded and obtained 
of Rome the rights of citizenship, B. C. 90. — Scarcely was this ended, when the Ro- 
mans began again to imbrue their hands in each other'-s blood in the fierce war of 
Sylla and Marius, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized 
this contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet re- 
signed his power at the end of four years, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is soon fol- 
lowed by the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of 
Cicero, B. C. 62. 

_ Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first trium- 
virate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, repressed the 
flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added Syria to the Roman 
possessions; Cossar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer 
Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond which held Caesar and 
Pompey together, and they hastened to determine in the field of battle who should be 
master of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly, 
by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was beheaded 
the instant he landed on the shore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at 
Rome, but was assassinated in the senate, by a company of conspirators headed by 
Brutus and Cassius, B. C. 43. 

A second triumvirate was now formed, on the pretext of avenging this murder, be- 
tween Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of Caesar. A horrid 
proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the party of the conspirators 
necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 42, put an end to the hopes of 
Brutus and Cassius, at the head of this party. Octavius, who was the nephew of 
Caesar, easily effected the removal of one member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of 
feeble talents and insignificant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by 
love for Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the 
fate of battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The armament of 
Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius at Actium, B. C. 31. This 
battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her possessions, to the power 
of Octavius, by whom the imperial government was finally established. 

g2 



78 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, presents but 
a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy, and civil war. 

5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the Imperial 
Government to the reign of Constantine, A. D. 306". As Christianity was introduced 
into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman govern- 
ment, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan Emperors. 

The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become 
proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature, and the arts. It is distinguished, 
also, for the birth of our Savior; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his cruci- 
fixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Caligula, Clau- 
dius, and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny of the emperors, and the profli- 
gacy of their families and favorites. 

On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed, in which 
Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, successively gained the empire and lost their lives. — 'The 
Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, next in order receive 
the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the final conqueror of the Jews, whose 
obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the 
predictions of Christ. His reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which 
buried the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the 
family, provokes his own assassination, A. D. 96. 

Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian, 
we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Antonines, extending 
from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years. Their reigns appear in the midst 
of the general sterility and desolation of the imperial history like the verdant oasis in 
the desert. Literature and the arts of peace revived under their benign influence. 

After the death of Marcus, A. D. ISO, there follows a whole century of disorder, 
profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the absolute disposal of 
the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within 
the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are successively proclaimed, and 
deposed or murdered. — In the year 284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted 
a new system of administration. The empire was divided into four departments or 
provinces, %nd three princes were associated with him, in the government. This sys- 
tem only laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a few 
years Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two of the princes associated with Diocletian, 
appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple. 
The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne. 

This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors, 
those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecution and suffering. 
Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the first under Nero, A. D. 64, 
and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D. 303, and continuing ten years, unto 
A, D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress of the 
gospel, it was spread during this period throughout the whole Roman Empire. 

6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending from the 
reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the Heruli, A. D. 476. 
The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to the commencement of this 
period. He embraced the Christian faith himself, and patronized it in the empire, as 
did also most of his successors ; on which account this may be called the period of the 
Christian Emperors. 

One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great influence 
on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Government to a new seat. 
He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed with his court, giving it the 
name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three 
sons and two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 
360. By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he 
v/as already on his march from Gaul to seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the 
Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian 
religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the ex- 
press purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible. 

From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. D. 
379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies 
between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew out of the re- 
moval of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled 
over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius separately the 
east and the west. — From this time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and its his- 
tory no longer belongs to that of Rome. 



P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 79 

The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are scarcely 
able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian invaders. At length. 
under Augustulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoacer, leader of 
the Heruli, and the history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476. 

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the continued 
inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the greatest annoyance 
was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three tribes, under three celebrated 
leaders; the Goths, under Alaric; the Vandals, under Genseric; and the Huns, 
under Attila ; the two former of which actually carried their victorious arms to Rome 
itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the 
world ; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by igno- 
ble concessions and immense gifts. 

§ 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also the Greek 
Empire, was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of almost 1000 years after the 
overthrow of the Western. After the fall of Rome nearly sixty different emperors had 
occupied the throne at Constantinople, when, A. D, 1202, that city was taken by the 
crusaders from France and Venice, By this event the Greek emperors were forced to 
establish their court at Nicsea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their 
former capital was recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held 
the sceptre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent, 
until it consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was prolonged to A. D. 
1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained it to 
the present day. 

For the principal works on the Roman history, see P. V. § 299. 7.— We mention here as valuable, Alex. Fraser Tytlerh Universal 
History. Bost. 1835. 2 vols. 8. — The student in ancient history will derive advantage also from B i g 1 a n d's Letters on the Study 
and Use of History, and Priestley's Lectures on History ; also, Riih's Fropadeutik des historischen Studiums. Berl. 1811. 8. 



PART II. 



MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 



11 



P L A T E X 




GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



Introduction. 



§ 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writing had come 
into general use, tradition was the only mode of preserving and spreading the 
knowledge of remarkable events. Many circumstances contributed to give to 
early traditions a fabulous character. The love of the marvellous, a natural 
tendency of the mind to employ symbolical and allegorical images to express 
ideas for which no definite words have been appropriated, and a disposition to 
eulogize and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all conspired to load history 
and fact with a mass of fiction, so that it became impossible for later inquirers 
to distinguish accurately between the true and false. 

§ 2. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authentic history 
by the name of my thi (/xv^ot), and they termed their contents or the matter of 
them, as well as the knowledge or study of them, mythology ({A.v$o%oyLa). 
Mythology, however, was not with them, as in modern times, a distinct branch 
of study. The term is now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge 
which considers the notions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and 
Romans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their actions, 
names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical representations. It is often 
employed also in a wider sense, including the religious fables of all ages and 
nations, and thus is made synonymous with the history of fable. 

§ 3. It is important to distinguish the point of view in which these mytholo- 
logical narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from that in which we are 
to regard them. To the former they were closely connected with their national 
history and their religious faith, were indeed parts of them ; to us they are only 
monuments and evidences of the state of culture of the human mind, if we view 
them philosophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of 
men guided by sense and imagination, affected much by external appearances, 
and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary powers. But they 
afford much valuable and even necessary aid in understanding the Greek and 
Roman authors, especially the poets, and in judging of ancient opinions, usages, 
and art. 

§ 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many centuries, 
were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various changes in respect to 
their general dress, aim, and application. Originally they consisted in part of 
actual occurrences, in part of arbitrary fiction, springing from fear, reverence, 
gratitude, patriotism, credulity and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cun- 
ning, and ambition. They were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin, but 
more frequently were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers and other- 
wise. By the poets they were woven into epic song ; by early philosophers 
they were clothed in mystery and allegory ; and by the later interpreted in 
divers conflicting ways ; while artists found in them an ample range of subjects 
for the chisel and the pencil. 

§ 5. Some of the modern writers on Greek and Roman mythology have 
merely stated the fables as reported among the ancients. Others have, in addi- 
tion, sought to trace them to their origin, either by making conjectures of alle- 
gorical, historical, and physical meanings in the stories, or deducing them from 
the events of early ages recorded in the Bible. But as these traditions arose 
in various ways, and often accidentally, there will of course be error in every 
system which attempts to refer them all to one common source and purpose. 

83 



84 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

§ 5 u. The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid in the idea, 
which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the first ages, conversant only 
with objects of sense ; viz. that every thing in nature was endued with an appropriate 
activity and spontaneity like that in man. In consequence of this idea, wherever an 
unusual appearance or agency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being or 
existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of personal existences out 
of natural phenomena, this personification of physical objects and events was, in all 
probability, one of the most prolific sources of fable and of idolatry; for which the stars 
and the elements seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. 

Many of the pagan stories are ingeniously solved by referring their origin to symbolical or allegorical descriptions of physical prin- 
ciples and changes. Cf. P. IV. § 41.— On the rise of idolatry, we refer to Faber, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. Lond. 1816. 3 vols. 4. 
Cf. also Shuckfvrd, Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. v.—Banier, cited § 12. 2. (a).— See references, P. V. § 364, 3. 

The following remarks, on the sources of fable, are from the Trait! des Etudes of Rollin. They 
were translated by Mr. Wellington H. Tyler, who has consented to their insertion here. 

1. " One source of Fable is the perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred History ; 
and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of Noah, perfectly 
instructed by him in religious matters, preserved for considerable time the worship of 
the true God in all its purity. But when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower 
of Babel, the members of this family were separated and scattered over different 
countries, diversity of language and abode was soon followed by a change of worship. 
Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, 
subject to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed by the use of 
writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured by an infinite number of fables, 
the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the more ancient had en- 
veloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved 
among all nations ; not, indeed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces 
of truth, marked and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had a 
common origin. Hence the notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, all- 
powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of 
external worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and 
general assent to certain great facts ; the creation of man by an immediate exertion of 
Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as the golden age, in 
which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of his brow or cultivated by 
painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abundance ; the fall of the same man, 
the source of all his woe, followed by a deluge of crime, which brought on one of 
water ; the human race saved by an ark, which rested upon a mountain ; and after- 
wards the propagation of the human race from one man and his three sons. — But the 
detail of particular actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was 
soon altered by the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the 
family of Noah itself. The historical fact that he was the father of three sons, and 
that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the 
earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose three sons, if we may believe the 
poets, shared between them the empire of the world." 

On several of the points above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coincidences with facts in sacred history. 
These are pointed out by several writers; we mention particularly Grotius, De veritate Rel. Christ. (L. i. c. 17.)— De Lavaur, Hia- 
toire de la Fable conferee avec l'Histoire Sainte. Amst. 1731. — Faber, Horse Mosaicas. — Collyer, Lectures on Scripture Facts. 2d ed. 
Lond. 1809.— SfiZZmr^e!'* Origines Sacra?.— Cf. Maurice, History of Hindostan. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. (bk. i.) 

2. " A second source of Fable was furnished by the ministry of angels in human 
affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, his intelligence and his 
immortality ; and he was farther desirous of associating them with his providence in 
the government of the world, as well in the departments of nature and the elements, 
as in reference to the conduct of men. The Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed 
with their glittering swords, ravage all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an 
innumerable multitude of people, and entirely extirpate the army of an impious prince. 
Mention is made of an angel, the prince and protector of the Persian empire ; of 
another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the 
people of God {Dan. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the 
world, as we learn from the Cherubim stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise 
to guard its entrance. — Noah and the other patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this 
truth, which to them had an intense interest : and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct 
their families on a subject of such importance ; but these by degrees losing the more 
pure and spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the 
agents through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence it is 
that men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits of the earth, 
others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so of all the rest ; of 
gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries and nations, and who 
were themselves under the dominion of the supreme God. 

3. " A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds 
of all people ; this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, that Providence pre~ 



P. II. INTRODUCTION. 85 

sides over all human events great and small, and that each, without exception, expe- 
riences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the immense detail to which the 
Divine Being must condescend, have felt bound to relieve him, by giving to each of a 
number of deities some particular, appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria 
dispertientes officia numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve too 
many concerns upon a single deity ; the soil was intrusted to one, the mountains to 
another, the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augustin (de Civitate 
Dei, iv. 8) recounts a dozen different deities, all. occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which 
each, according to his office, takes a special care at different times, from the first mo- 
ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. — Besides 
the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable duties of such affairs, there 
were others which were regarded as of a higher grade, because supposed to take a 
more noble part in the government of the world." 

The number of gods admitted in the Greek mythology was immense, if we may take Hesiod's 
testimony for authority. He says there are 30,000 gods on earth, guardians of men. 

Warburton (in the work cited P. IV. $ 12. 3) contends that the fables respecting metamorphoses, 
which are recorded by ancient authors, had their origin in the common belief of the doctrine of 
metempsychosis; and the latter he aflirms to have been a " method of explaining the ways of 
Providence, which, as they were seen to be unequal here, were supposed to be rectified here- 
after;" thus, he says, metempsychosis naturally suggested metamorphosis ; "as the way of pu- 
nishing in another state was by a transmigration of the soul; so in this, it was by a transforma- 
tion of the body." 

4. " A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which ever 
strives to authorize its crimes and passions. The more important and renowned of 
these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and defamed by attri- 
buting to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the most detestable, murders, 
adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human heart has been ready to multiply, 
distort, and pervert the fictions of mythology, for the purpose of palliating and excusing 
practices the most vicious and frightful by the example of the gods themselves. There 
is no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by 
the worship which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the mother 
of the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian would 
have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous 
man in the republic, to go and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that 
his own mother should have been made a goddess to take the place and honors of 
Cybele." 

5. " I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from which Fable takes its 
rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a fifth source, 
we may refer to a natural sentiment of admiration or gratitude, which leads men to 
associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which particularly attracts 
their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which seems to procure for them 
some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon, and the stars; such are parents in view 
of their children, and children in that of their parents ; persons who have either in- 
vented or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinguished 
themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared the land 
of robbers, enemies to public repose ; in short such are all who, by some virtue or 
by some illustrious 'action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It 
will be readily perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, 
has given rise to all those demigods and heroes whom Fable has located in the heavens, 
by associating, with the person and under the name of a single individual, actions 
widely separated in respect to time, place, and person." — Cf. P. V. § 222. 4. 

§ 6. The advantages of an acquaintance with mythology are many. One of 
the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient philosophy, re- 
ligion, and history, is the better understanding it enables one to obtain of the 
Greek and Roman writers and of the works of their artists. It is obviously ne- 
cessary to the cultivation of classical learning, which is of such acknowledged 
importance in modem education. — Cf. P. IV. § 29. 

On the benefits of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract from Rollin, as 
cited under the last section. 

1. " It apprizes us how much we are indebted to Jesus Christ the Savior, who has 
rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful light of 
the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men? Even the wisest 
and most upright men, those celebrated philosophers, those great politicians, those 
renowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome? In a word, what 
were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the most enlightened ? Fable 
informs us. They were the blind worshipers of some demon, and bowed the knee 
before gods of gold, silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues, 
deaf and mute. They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. They 
did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuous Juno, a 

H 



ob GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason to hold the first 
rank among the gods. — See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves should 
have been, had not the light of the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in 
Fable, every circumstance in the life of the gods, ought at once to fill us with confusion, 
admiration, and gratitude. 

2. " Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to us the 
absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of Paganism, it may inspire us with new 
respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its morals. 
Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishop «, in order to render idolatry 
odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the 
eyes of the public, all which was found in the interior of a temple that had been 
demolished ; bones of men, limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other ves- 
tiges of the sacrilegious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the 
effect which the study of Fable must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; and 
this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of 
the Christian religion. The great work of St. Augustin, entitled 'The City of God,' 
which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same time a proof of what 
I now advance, and a perfect model of the manner in which profane studies ought to 
be sanctified." 

° This bishop was Theophilus of Alexandria ; respecting whom, see Murdoch's Translation of Mosheim, i. 392. 

We would here refer to a very able and interesting treatise by Tholuck, on The nature and moral 
influence of Heathenism among the Greeks and Romans. — "Whosoever," says Tholuck, "stands on 
a lofty mountain should look not merely at the gold which the morning sun" pours on the grass 
and flowers at his feet, but he should sometimes also look behind him into the deep valley where 
the shadows still rest, that he may the more sensibly feel that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it 
is also salutary for the disciples of Christ, at times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a 
glance over the dark stage, where men play their part in lonely gloom, without a Savior, with- 
out a God!" 

See a translation of Tholuck's Treatise by Prof. Emerson, in Bill. Repository, vol. ii. 

3. " Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the under- 
standing of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading which a per- 
son is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of poets merely, 
whose natural language is Fable ; it is often employed also by orators, and it fur- 
nishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most 
sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among many others, is that drawn from 
the story of Medea, in the speech of Cicero (Fro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the sub- 
ject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 

4. "There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated by 
a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. These are so 
many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their 
interpretation." It should be added, that, mythology, at the same time, itself re- 
ceives new light from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that 
these two branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other. 

§ 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern countries, 
and having derived her religious notions particularly from Egyptians and Phoe- 
nicians, the origin of most of the Greek deities is to be sought in the religious 
history of those countries and nations. But many changes took place, and 
this original derivation was greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, 
who wished to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit, of their whole re- 
ligious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter the 
names of the primitive gods. 

Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many points of 
resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India. 

See Karl Ritter, Die Vorhalle Europaischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodotus urn den Kaukasus unrt an den Gestaden des Pontus. 
Berlin, 1830. 8. Cf. Kennedy, as cited § 12. 2. ( f ). Also Moore and Maurice, as there cited. Also the Works of Sir Wm. Jones, 

cited § to. 4. On the influence of the Phoenicians, &c. on the early culture of the Greeks, cf. P. IV. § 40-42 ; P. V. § 12. On 

the changes successively wrought in the mythology oi the Greeks, Mayo, vol. iii. p. 1-3, as cited § 12. 2. (a), 

§ 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence of its Gre- 
cian descent, being in scarcely any part of it a native growth, but borrowed 
chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Romans likewise changed, 
not only in many cases the names of the gods, but also the fictions of their 
story, and the rites of their worship. They also derived some notions and 
usages from the Etrurians. (Cf. P. IV. § 109.) All the religious conceptions 
and institutions of the Romans were closely interwoven with their civil policy, 
and on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system 
of auspices, auguries, and various omens. We find therefore in Roman mytho- 



P. II. - INTRODUCTION". 87 

logy much which the Greek had not, and much which was borrowed from it, 
but altered and as it were molded anew. 

§ 9. Thus the general division or classification of the gods was not the same 
with both nations. The Greeks made a three-fold division into Superior gods, 
Inferior gods, and Demigods or heroes; the Romans a two-fold, into gods Supe- 
rior and Inferior (Dii majorum et minorum gentium). Their first class the 
Romans distinguished as Consentes and Selecti ,■ their second class, which in- 
cluded demigods or heroes, they also distinguished as Indigetes and Semones. 

1. In the Roman classification the Consent es, so called because they were supposed 
to form the great council {consentientes) of heaven, consisted of twelve, 6 males and 6 
females; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan; Juno, Minerva, Ceres, 
Diana, Venus. Vesta. These were the great celestial gods. — The Selecti were nearly 
equal to them in rank, and consisted or eight, Saturn, Pluto or Orcus, Bacchus, Ja- 
nus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. These (the Consentes and the Selecti) were called 
Dii majorum gentium, and all the rest Dii minorum gentium, in allusion to the division 
of the senators (patres). 

2. The Indigetes, called also Adscriptitii, were heroes ranked among the gods on 
account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pollux, and 
Quirinus or Romulus. — The Semones included those deities that presided over parti- 
cular objects ; as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of flowers, &c. — Besides 
these there were among the Dii minorum gentium a numerous class of miscellanei, 
including the virtues and vices, and other'objects, personified; and also a number 
called dii peregrini, foreign gods introduced at Rome from abroad, or at least tole- 
rated, although perhaps worshiped chiefly by foreigners residing in the city. 

3 t. The gods were likewise classed according to their supposed residence. When 
thus classed, four divisions were made of them; the celestial gods (cf. § 11); the ter- 
restrial ; the marine; the infernal. 

The Consentes in the Roman division corresponded to the class which the Greeks, 
when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the Celestial and Olympian, 
ttrovpdvioi, 6\vfjiXioi; which were also called bi fieydXoi 5-£<h, and hi Sdjcexa Sedi. The 
Athenians had an altar consecrated to these collectively, /?w/idj tu>v 6u6£Ka. 

4 t. The gods are sometimes arranged according to their descent in the fabulous 
genealogies. But the genealogy of several of the gods is given variously by different 
poets and fabulists. 

The earliest Greek theogony was that of Orpheus (cf. P. V. $ 48). In Homer (cf. P. V. $ 50) 
are traces of a second theogony, which has been ascribed to Pronapides, said to have been the 
preceptor of Homer. Next is the regular scheme of Hesiod (cf. P. V. $ 51) in his poem entitled 
Theogony. Parts of a fourth system are wrought by Aristophanes (cf. P. V. $ 65) into his comedy 
of the Clouds. A partial theogony is mingled by Ovid (P. V. $ 364) with his Cosmogony. Cicero 
(cf. P. V. $ 46S) in his treatise^on the nature of the gods gives the genealogy of some.— See $ 12. 1. 

A genealogical table, according to HcsiocTs Theogony, is appended to Cache i Hesiod (cf, P. V. § 51. 4). — A genealogical Chart of 
Mythology is given in our Plate, page SO. 

§ 10. But the differences in the systems of the two nations need not essen- 
tially affect a scientific treatment of the subject of their mythology. For the 
principal deities of each were common to both, and it will contribute to brevity 
and comprehensiveness to include them all in one s} T stem of classification, 
pointing out what may be peculiar in each case as it occurs. It is therefore 
proposed to consider the gods of the Greek and Roman mythology in four 
classes; viz. (1) Superior Gods, (2) Inferior Gods, (3) Mythical Beings, whose 
history is intimately connected with that of the gods, and (4) Heroes. 

In the first class will be noticed the ticelve Co?isentes, or great celestial gods, and 
also, Janus, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto, and Bacchus. — In the second will be mentioned 
Uranus or Ccelus, Sol, Luna, Aurora. Nox, Iris^ /Eolus, Pan, Latona, Themis, Ms- 
culapius, Plutus, and Fama. Here belong also numerous deities of the Romans 
which were not common to them and the Greeks. — The third class comprehends the 
Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, Furies, Genii, 
Lares. Satyrs, and the like. — Under the fourth and last fall the names of Perseus, 
Hercules, Theseus, and various others, whose achievements led to their deification. 

§ 11. It maybe proper to remark here, that the ideas entertained by the 
Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were exceedingly im- 
perfect. A being possessing powers of body and mind superior to those of 
man, especially superior might, mainly answered to their notions of a god. 
The superiority which they ascribed to their deities consisted chiefly in freedom 
from bodily decay, a sort of immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful 
celerity, to appear and disappear at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form, 



88 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



and to exert an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In these 
respects, however, their power was limited, according to the general opinion, 
being controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of things, termed fate or 
destiny. 

" The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form as themselves, but 
of far greater beauty, strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much larger 
size than men ; for in those times great size was esteemed a perfection both in man and woman, 
and consequently was supposed to be an attribute of their divinities, to whom they ascribed all 
perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods They were 
not capable of death, but they might be wounded or otherwise injured. They could make them- 
selves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms of men or of animals as 
it suited their fancy. Like men, they stood in daily need of food and sleep. The meat of the 
gods was called Ambrosia (dtxPpoaia), their drink Nectar (viKTap), The gods, when they came 
among men, often partook of their food and hospitality. 

"Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They 
married and had children, just like mortals. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, 
or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth ; and these love-tales form a 
large portion of Grecian mythology. 

" To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their 
deities all human passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, grati- 
tude, and all the benevolent affections ; on the other hand, they were frequently envious, jealous, 
and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from man- 
kind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro- 
cessions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect. 

" The abode of the gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such as Homer and 
Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate of 
clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unfolded its valves to permit the passage of 
the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may term 
it, was regulated on the same principles as a Grecian city of the heroic ages. The inhabitants, 
who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their separate 
dwellings; but all, when summoned, repaired to the palace of Jupiter, whither also came, when 
called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the under world. It was 
also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods feasted each day on am- 
brosia and nectar; which last precious beverage was handed round by the lovely goddess Hebe 
( Youth), — maid-servants being the usual attendants at meals in the houses of the Grecian princes 
in early times. Here they conversed of the affairs of heaven and earth; and as they quaffed 
their nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them with the tones of his lyre, to which the 
Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, the gods retired to sleep in their 
respective dwellings. 

" The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day in their chariots drawn by celestial 
steeds through the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." (Keightley, p. 14-17.) 

§ 12 t. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes specified, we will, 
ift accordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references 
to the sources of information on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and 
then giving the titles to more modern works. 

1 u. Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch upon, mythological 
subjects ; although these are not by any means treated in the same manner in the different kinds 
of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. We have properly mythic poetry in the Theogony 
of Hesiod and the Cassandra ofLycophron (P. V. $ 67), the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and in two 
poems of Claudian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. V. $ 386).— Many histo- 
rians have introduced into their narratives mythological traditions, without presenting them, 
however, as fully entitled to credence, while they have also recorded much that appertained to 
the worship of the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodotus, Diodorus, 
Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny, may be mentioned particularly. — There were also ancient 
writers who made mythology their theme, or treated the subject more at length ; as, among the 
Greeks, Jlpollodorus, Conon, Hephcestion, Parthenius, Jlntonivus, Liberalis, Palwphatus, Heracli- 
des, Phurnutus (P. V. $ 221 ss) ; among the Romans, Hyginus and Fulgentius (P. V. $ 502 ss). 
Notices oft this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writers of the church, 
and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 

2 u. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject more at large, others 
more compendiously ; some present the subject in an alphabetical order; there are also works 
accompanied with plates and drawings for illustration. 



(a) The following are some of the works which go into more 
full details on the whole subject, or on particular parts. 

Lit. Greg. Gyraldi, Histori* Deor. Gentil. Syntagmata xvii. 
Bas. 1548. fol. Also in his Opp. Omn. (ed. /. Jensius). Lugd. 
Eat. 1606. fol. 

Vine. Cartari, le imagini degli dei degli antichi. Lion. 1581. 4. 
Also in Latin, Lugd. 1581. 4. oft. repr. 

Natalis Comitis Mythologias s. Explications Fabularum libri 
X. Gen. 1651. 8. 

Gtrh. I. Vvssius, De theologia Gentili et physiologia Christiana, 
s. de origine et progressu idolatriaj libri IX. Amst. 1668. fol. 

Ant Banier, La mythologie et les fables expliquees par l'his- 
toire. Par. 1738-10. 8 vols. 12. In German, with additions by 
J. A. Schlegel and /. M SchrScJth. Lpz. 1755-65. 5-vols. 8. In 
English, .Banier, Mythology of the Ancients. Lond. 1739. 4 vols. 8. 



R. Mayo, System of Mythology. Philad. 1815. 4 vols. 8. 

F. Creuzefs Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Volker, beson- 
ders der Griechen. Lpz. 1819-21. 4 Bde. 8. 3d improved ed, 
commenced 1836.— Same (abridged) by G.H.Moser. Lpz. 1822. 8. 

Ch. A. Loleck, Aglaophamus, sive de Theologian mysticas Gra;- 
corum causis. Regimontii (Koningsberg), 1829. 2 vols 8. op- 
posing some of the views of Creuzer: it has been highly com- 
mended. 

J. H. Koss, Antisymbolik. Stuttg. 1824. 8. 

G- Hermann, De Mythologia Graecorum antiquissima. 1817. 

G. Hermann and F. Creuzer, Briefe Uber Homer und Hesiodus. 
Heidelb. 1818. 8. 

G. Hermann, Briefe Uber das Wesen und die Behandlung der 
Mythologie. Lpz. 1819. 8. 
/. A. Kaunas Mythologie der Griechen. Lpz. 1S05. 8.— By 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



89 



tame, crste Urkunden der Geschichle, Oder allgemeine Mytholo- ] 
gie. Baireuth, 1808. 2 Bde. 8.— By same, Pantheon der altesten 
Naturpbilosophie aller Volker. Tab. 1811. 8. 

/. L. Hug, Untersuchungen ttber d. Mythos d. berUbmtern 
Volker d. alt. Welt, vorzUglichd. Griech. Freyb. 1S12. 4. 

K. 0. Mailer, Prolegomena zu einer wissenscbaftlichen My- 
thologie. Gtittingen, 1S25. 8. 
Buttmann, Mythologus. Berl. 1S28. 2 vols. 8. 
S. A. L. Richter, Phantasien des Alterthums, oder Samml. 
myth. Sagen der Hellenen, Romer, &c. Lpz. 1708-20. 5 Bde. 8. 
We may add /. Bryant's New System of Mythology. Lond. 
1807. 6 vols. 8. 
Dupuis, Origine de tous les Cultes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8. 
R. P. Knight, Inquiry into the symbolical Language of Ancient 
Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of the Classical Journal. 

Court ae Gebtlin, Le Monde Primitif. Par. 1774-87. 9 vols. 4. 
explaining fables, traditions, symbols, and language. 

Guigniaut, Religions de l'Antiquite. Par. 1825-30. 4 vols. 8. 
Constant, De la Religion. Par. 1826-31. 5 vols. 8. 

(i) MGre compendious treatises, or manuals. 
C. T. Damm, Mythologie der Griechen und Romer (ed. Leve- 
zow). Berl. 1820. 8. with plates. 

M. G. Hermann, Handbuch der Mythologie aus Homer und 
Hesiod. Berl. 1787-95. 3 vols. 8. — By same, Mythologie der 
Griechen, far die obern Klassen, &c. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8. 

K.Ph.Moritz, Gotterlehere, oder mythol. Dichtungen der Alten. 
Berl. 1819. 8. with plates. Also transl. by C. F. Jager, N. York, 
1S30. 12. with plates. Same work in English, Mythological 
Fictions of Greeks and Romans. 12mo. 

Fr. Rambach, Abriss einer Mythologie far Kttnstler. Berl. 
1796. 2 vols. 8. 

C. A. Bottiger's Grundrisse zu Vorlesungen Uber die Mytholo- 
gie. Dresd. 1808. 8.— By same, Amalthea oder Museum d. 
Kunslmythologie und bildl. Alterthumskunde. Leipz. 1821. 

F. Fiedler, Mythologie der Griechen und Italischen Volker. 
Hal. 1823. 

Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon ; containing the Mythological 
systems of the Greeks and Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. with 
plates. 

Valpy's Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1832. 18. very brief. 
' C. K. Dillaway, Roman Antiquities and Ancient Mythology. 
Bost. 1831. 12. 
Keightley's Mythology. Lond. 1832. 

(c) Dictionaries of Mythology. 
B. Hederich, Mythologisches Lexicon (ed. /. /. Schwabe). Lpz. 
1770. 8. 

P. F.A. Nitsch,Ne\i&i mythol. Wflrterbuch (ed.F. G. Klopfer). 
Lpz. 1S21, 2 vols. 8. 
K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. Worterbuch fttr Schaler. Berl. 1817. 8. 
/. G. Gruber, Worterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie und 
Religion. Weim. 1810. 3 vols. 8. 
P. C. Chompre, Dictionnaire abrege de la fable. Par. 1818. 12. 
Fr. Noel, Dictionnaire de la fable, ou Mythologie Grecque, 
Latine, Egyptienne, Celtique, Persanne, Indienne, Chinoise, otc. 
Par. 1823. 2 vols. . 

IVm. Holwell, A Mythological Dictionary, &c. (Extracted 
from /. Bryant's New System or Analysis of Ancient Mytholo- 
gy.) Lond. 1793. 8. 

Sell, New Pantheon. Lond. 1790. 2 vols. 4. 
Encyclopidie Methodique, the part entitled Antiquites, Mytho- 
logie, Chronologie, &c, which part consists of 5 vols. 4. Par. 
1786, ss. 

Biographie Universelle, partie Mythologique. Par, 1832, 
3 vols. 8. 



(d) The following works contain plates illustrating the sub- 
jects of mythology, accompanied with explanations. 

Bernard de Moutfaucon, L'Antiquite expliquee et representee 
en figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5, fol. Supplem. Par. 1724. 
5 vols. fol. Translated into English by David Humphreys. 
Lond. 1721. 5 vols. fol. with Supplement, 2 vols. fol. 

Joach. von Sandrart, Iconologia deorum. Nurob. 16S0. fol. 

Spence's Polymetis, or an inquiry concerning the agreement 
between the works of the Roman poets and the remains of the 
ancient artists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol. 

Le Temple des Muses, a superb folio. 

D. Bardon, The Usages, religious, civil, &c, of the Ancients. 
Lond. 4 vols. 8. 

A. Hirt, Bilderbuch far Mythologie, Archaologie und Kunst. 
Berl. 1805-16. 2 vols. 4. 

A. L. Millin, Galerie mythologique, ou Recueil des monu- 
mens pour servir a l'etude de la mythologie, de 1'histoire de 
Part, &c. Par. 1811. 2 vols. 8. containing correct pictures of 
about 800 ancient monuments.— Trans. Germ, by Tblhen. 

A. H. Petiscus, Der Olymp, oder Mythologie der ffigypter, 
Griechen und Romer. Berl. 1837. 8. 6th ed. 

(e) The impressions on ancient gems are of much service in 
illustrating mythology, to which part of the subject belong the 
following works : 

A. C. Klausing, Versuch einer mythologlschen Daktyliothek 
fur SchUler. Lpz. 1781. 8. (with 120 neat impressions of en- 
graved gems.) 

T. F. Roth's mythologische Daktyliothek. Nttrnb. 1805 (with 
90 impressed models of engraved stones). 

Also Lippert's Daktyliothek (P. IV. § 210). One thousand of 
his impressions belong to mythology. 

The gems of which Wedgevjood andBentlty have given imita- 
tions, pertain, many of them, to mythology ; as also those of 
Tassie (P. IV. § 210). 

(/) Here we may name likewise some works on the Mytho- 
logy of other nations besides the Greeks and Romans. 

Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. 

Rhode, Ueber die religiose Bildung der Hindus. Lpz. 1827. 
2 vols. 8. 

Kennedy, Researches into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient 
and Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Researches. 

Maurice, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1S06. 7 vols. 8. 

Ward's View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the 
Hindoos. 

Montg. Martin, Hist, and Antiquities of Eastern India. Lond. 
1838. 3 vols. 8, with some good plates illustrating Hindoo my- 
thology. 

C. Coleman, Mythology of the Hindus. Lond. 1832. 4. 
with plates. 

Hager, Pantheon Chinois (or Parallel between the religious- 
worship of the Greeks and the Chinese). Par. 1810. 4. Cf. Class. 
Journ. i. 178. 

/. C. Prichard, Analysis of Egyptian Mythology ; in whkh 
the superstitions of the ancient Egyptians are compared with 
those of the Indians and other nations of antiquity. Lond. 1819. 8. 
also 1839, with preliminary essay by Von Schlegel; and plates. 

Nyerup, Worterbuch der Scandinavian Mythologie. Copenh. 
1816. 12. 

E. Davies, Mythology and Rites of the British Druids. Lond. 
1809. 8. 

/. M. Kemble, Saxon Mythology. Cf. Bibl. Repos. si . 247. 

For some remarks on the resemblance of the mythology of the 
Middle Ages to the Classical, cf. Editor's Preface to Warion's 
i Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. i. p. 25 ss. ed. Lond. 1S24. 



12 



h2 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. SATURN. 91 



I. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. 

§ 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated Superior 
Gods, are the following : Saturn, Kpovoj, Xpovoj, Saturnus,- Janus; Rhea or 
Cybele, 'Pia, c Pft'a, Kvpiiql Jupiter, Ztvc, ; Juno, "Hpa; Neptune, noottSwv, 
Neptunus ; Pluto, ITaovt'ov ; Apollo, 'ArtoMuov ; Diana, "AprsjUtj; Minerva, 
naMaj ; Mars, '"Aprp ; Venus, 'A^poc^V*/ ; Vulcan, "Htyaioto$, Vulcanus ,• 
Mercury, 'Eppjj, Mercurius ,- Bacchus, AtoVixjoj; Ceres, Aj^t^p ; Vesta. 
'Ectt'ux. 

§ 14. (1) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, called 
Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. He was said to be the 
son of Uranos and Titsea, i. e. the heavens and the earth, and to have possessed 
the first government of the universe. His wife was Rhea, who was his sister. 
Saturn and his five brethren were called Titans, probably from their mother; 
Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the govern- 
ment of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers ; yet 
pledged himself to rear no male children ; accordingly he is represented as de- 
vouring his sons as soon as born. 

§ 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, escaped, 
through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him stones to devour in- 
stead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recovering his 
throne, after he had been driven from it by his brothers the Titans and bound in 
Tartarus. But soon he made war himself upon Saturn, and seized the govern- 
ment. According to Roman fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called 
Saturnia), and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. 
Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets assigned to 
the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of 
the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly created, is the basis 
of this story. 

Hes. Op. et Di. vs. 199.— Virg. Mo. viii. 319.— Ov. Metam. i. 89-112. 

§ 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signifying time 
(#poyoj), he has been considered as designed to personify time, and the first 
cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, as well as the story of his 
devouring his children, seems to have some reference to the idea of time, as 
satiated only by the destruction of what it has produced. 

1 u. This name, however, may have been given from the idea of fertility or produc- 
tiveness, as he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Sa- 
turnus is derived from Satur, signifying full, satiated, and also fertile. Saturn is 

termed Sator, Vitisalor, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or scythe), Sterculinus or Stercutius 
(having taught the fertilizing uses of manure), Canus and Leucanthes (XsvKavdfis). 

2. Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See 
Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. i. § 5. — ;< Saturn was not unknown to the ancient Ger- 
mans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Seatur ; who is described as 
standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of water filled 
with fruits and flowers." HolwelVs Diet, cited § 12. 2 (c). 

§ 17. It was once customary to offer to Saturn human sacrifices, particularly 
among the Carthaginians, the Gayls, and the Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy. — 
His principal temples among the Greek were at Olympia, and at Drepanum in 
Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome served also the purpose of a treasury, 
in memorial, perhaps, of the general security and the community of goods in 
the Saturnian or golden age. The chief festival of this deity was the Satur- 
nalia of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (IlEXtopta) of the Thessalians, 
devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality. 

1. The custom of sacrificing children to Saturn seems to identify him with Moloch, the Phoeni- 
cian idol, to whom the apostate Israelites sacrificed their offspring. 

See Jaltn, Bibl. Arch. § 211. — Diod. Sic. xx. 14. — Morin, and Freret, Ves victimes humaines, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vols. i. and 
xviii. — Origin of human sacrifices. Class. Journ. xiv. 352. xvii. 104. 

2 u. Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe or sickle 
in one hand, and often in the other a serpent with its tail in its mouth in the form of a 
circle, both emblems of time. There are, however, but few ancient monuments of 
this deity. 



PLATE XI. 




P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RHEA OR CYBELE. 93 

3. In our Plate X. fig. 1, he appears in a sitting posture., with a sort of sickle in one 
hand. In the Sup. Plate 3, he appears with the scythe, a long beard, and wings. — 
He is also thus described : "a decrepit old man, with a long beard and hoary head ; 
his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk : his 
nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand holds 
a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour." 

§ 18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Romans. They 
represent him as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning over the earliest and so- 
called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus 
that Saturn fled, and under them was the golden age, a period of uninterrupted 
peace. To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which 
was always open in time of war, and was closed with much solemnity, when- 
ever there was general peace in the Roman empire; a thing which happened 
but three times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. P. I. § 60). 
From this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the 
month was sacred to him. 

1. He was considered as the inventor of locks, doors, and gates, which are thence 
called janucB. His name was applied to structures which were sometimes erected on 
the Roman roads where four roads divided ; a sort of gateway with an arch opening 
in each of the directions, and called a Janus. He was termed Father, and sometimes 
God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus, and oblations were 
made to nim, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original name was Djamis 
or Dianus, which some have derived from dies, day. He is called the Sun, and was 
the Sun-god or God of the Year, of the original inhabitants of Italy. The story of his 
friendly reception of Saturn is by some explained as referring to the agreement be- 
tween the old inhabitants of Latium and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two 
gods in common. — Janus was not received among the gods of the Greeks. 

2u. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence 
the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also called Patulcius r Clusius, Con- 
sivius, Cuslos, and Claviger. 

3. The representation with two faces in Plate XL fig. 8, and in Sup. Flate 3, gives 
his appearance on a number of consular coins. In Plate VII., on his temple, he ap- 
pears with four faces. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos is repre- 
sented with four heads. See Plate XII. Janus is also represented with a key in 

one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to 
refer to the 12 months of the year. His statue erected by Numa is said to have had 
its fingers so composed as to signify 365, the number of days in a year. 

§ 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife and sister of 
Saturn, was Rhea or Ops. Yet the history and worship of Cybele were after- 
wards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, that both were considered the 
same person, and although Rhea was said to be the daughter of Earth, were 
each taken for Gaia or Tellus, and often called Vesta, and the great mother of 
gods. The origin of Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, 
and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her. 

Cybele, properly speaking, lived later; and was, according to tradition, a 
daughter of Maeon a king of Phrygia and Lydia ; or according to others, in an 
allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her invention of various musical 
instruments, and her love for Mys, a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered 
her frantic, are the most prominent circumstances of her history. 

Ovid, Fast. 4. 223.— Catullus, de At. et Ber. 

Besides the names above mentioned, she was called Mater Dyndymena, B-ere- 
cynthia, and Iduea, Pessinuntia, and Bona Dca. 

§ 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as inhabited and 
fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was represented. 

1 u. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, with a 
turreted mural crown on her head. Often she was borne in a chariot drawn by lions ; 
sometimes she rested upon a lion. 

2. On gems, she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine. 
Such is her appearance, Plate X. fig. 2, taken from Montfaucon. In the Sup. Plate 
3, she sits in a chair, with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. — She was also 
formed with many breasts, with a key or keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, and 
frequently with two lions under her arms. In Sup. Plate 5, is a remarkable repre- 
sentation, given by Montfaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p, 18). Cf. P. IV. § 156. 2. 



94 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

A figure in silver with some parts plated with gold, and the whole elegantly finished, repre- 
senting Cybcle, was found at Macon (ancient- Matisco) on the Saone, in 1764. 

This was published by Count Caylus, vol. vii. pi. IX.—Antkoiis Lmpriere.—Ilanier, sur les statues de Cybele, in the Mem. 
Acad. Imcr. vol. v. p. 241. 

§ 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but spread thence 
through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was exceedingly tumultuous, 
as her priests (called Corybanles or Galli, and the chief one Jirchigallus) went 
about with clamorous music and singing, acting like madmen and filling the 
air with the mingled noise of shrieks, howlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and 
spears. 

1 u. The removal of her image from Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of 
her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The festival called Megalesia 
(from neydXri, the great mother) was maintained in her honor. 

Liv. Hist. 29. 10, 11, 14.— Vol. Max. 8. 15. 

2. The place called Pessinus was said to have derived its name from n£o-£jV, to fall, 
because it was the spot upon which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled 
Ancile and Palladium sent down from Jupiter. 

At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar ; the ma- 
gistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and strangers usually 
assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess through the streets of 
the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated in a similar manner, and attended 
with many indecencies. 

3. There appears to be a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pracriti, the goddess of 
nature among the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions, and her festival is 
attended with the beating of drums. 

See Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. — Coleman's Mythology of the Hindoos. 

§ 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the gods was 
called by the Greeks Zev$, by the Romans Jupiter. It would seem, that by 
this god was originally represented nature in general ; afterwards, the superior 
atmosphere ,- and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history 
of Crete were incorporated among the traditions respecting him. He was a son 
of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his father of his kingdom, 
and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune received the sea, Pluto 
the infernal world, and himself the earth and heavens. The giants, sons of 
the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to 
scale Olympus, but he defeated them with thunderbolts forged by the Cyclops. 

Enraged by the corruption and wickedness of men, he destroyed the whole 

race by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and Pyrrha alone escaped. The 
supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years B. C. 

Ovid, Metam. i. 151, 260.— Claudian's Gigantomachia. Cf. P. V. § 386. 

§ 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a mountain of 
Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant serenity of its summit, 
represented as a suitable place for the abode of the gods. (Cf. § 11.) — His 
first wife was Metis, whom he destroyed, because it was foretold him, that she 
would bear a child that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the 
goddess Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, Themis, 
he begat the Horse and the Parcae. — The third and most celebrated was Juno, 
by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan.— Tradition, particularly the tales 
respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors of Jupiter ; e. g. with Eu- 
ropa 1 , Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele 2 , and Io 3 . Apollo, Mer- 
cury, Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods 
were called the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter, 
however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity and rank, 
and not intended to imply literal relationship. 

i Ovid, Metam. ii. 836.- — 2 jj. jji, 265. 3 lb. i. 588. 

§ 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numerous temples 
were erected to his honor. The largest and the most celebrated in Greece was 
that in Olympia in Elis, remarkable for its own magnificence, and for its colossal 
statue of Jupiter wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its 
vicinity every fifth year. His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was 
renowned (cf. P. III. § 71), and considered the most ancient in Greece. — In 
Rome the Capitol was specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city many 
temples. 



P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. JUNO. 95 

1 u. Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a thunderbolt in 
his right hand, and in his left a long scepter resembling a spear ; and the eagle, sacred 
to him, standing near, or, as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended 
wings. 

2. The representation in the Sup. Plate 2 corresponds to the above description. — The 
eagle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. Jupiter is also spoken of as wearing 
" golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various flowers v and figures of 
animals." — In the Sup. Plate 1 we have his appearance in a noble statue mentioned by 
Montfaucon. — In the statue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig. 3) he is presented as " sitting upon 
his throne, his left hand holding a scepter, his right extending victory to the Olympian 
conquerors, his head crowned with olive, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts, 
and flowers. The four corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by 
a sphinx tearing in pieces a Theban youth." 

On the Olympian statue, see Flaxman's Lect. p. 87, as cited P. IV. § 191.— Quatr. de Quincy, cited P. IV. 5 160. 

3. As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the horns of a ram. Such 
was the statue at his temple in Libya (cf. P. III. § 71). Thus he appears in the Sup. 
Plate 29. On ceremonial occasions, and when the oracle was consulted, this statue, 
sparkling with precious stones, was borne in a gilded barge on the shoulders of twenty- 
four priests moving (it was pretended) just where the god impelled them, followed by a 
troop of women singing hymns. 

But the most singular representation is that given in the Sup. Plate 10, exhibiting 
Jupiter Pluvialis, as found in a bas-relief at Rome, designed to commemorate his in- 
terposition in sending rain on a certain occasion. 

§ 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles derived from circum- 
stances of his history, or the places of his worship. 

1 u. The Greeks termed him Z£vs, and applied to him various epithets, as the Idcsan 
(b 'Idaios), Olympic (OXv/jnnKds), Dodoncean (Awdcoycuo?), thunderer (Kepavving), deliverer 
(eXevdzpios), hospitable &v*-os), punisher of the perjured (opKios), &c. The Romans 
styled him Oplimus Maximus, Capitolinus, Stator, Diespiter, Feretrius, &c. As' the 
avenger of crime, he was called also Vejovis or Vedius ; yet some consider these as 
names of another distinct divinity ; and others take them for names of Pluto. 

2. Among the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following; from hia 
sending rain, (>p8ptos, Utlvs, ve(f>e\r)yepiTrii, dpaivspris ; from his darting thunder, dare- 
pozriTfis, fipovraios, TcpitiKipavvog ; from his protection of suppliants, iKsaiog, iKerf.aios. The 
Romans also called him sometimes Inventor, Elicius, Latialis, Sponsor, Victor, Plu- 
vialis. — His Latin name Jupiter is from ZeS FL&tep, Z being changed into J. From Zfv? 
(in Doric ZSevs and iEolic &evs) came also probably the Latin Dens. The word is by 
some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source 
of life from $&<*>. 

3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of the 
various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from many different 
personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in the descent 
of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When the different tales 
are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic 
ornament, and philosophical allegory. 

4. Sir William Jones, with much ingenuity and learning, has attempted to show that the Greeks 
and Romans embodied in their Jupiter the special attributes which the Hindoos ascribe distinc- 
tively to the three divinities of their famous triad, named Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. In essen- 
tial attributes, Brahma is said to be the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer 
and re-producer. Each of these offices is ascribed to Jupiter in the classical fables, according to 
Sir William. — The Hindoo deities are given in our Plate XII. as usually seen in Bengal : Brahma 
with four faces and four hands, holding a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a Veda or Hindoo sacred 
book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hands, in one of which is a sort 
of ring or discus, which is said to send out flames of fire when twirled on his finger, and in the 
others a shell used for a trumpet, a sort of club, and a lotus ; Siva, having a trident in one hand 
and a rope in another for binding offenders, with serpents for his ear-rings, and a string of human 
heads for his necklace. He has a third eye in his forehead. 

It is worthy of notice, that the Hindoo fables represent Vishnu as assuming different forms by 
successive incarnations, in the exercise of his attributes as preserver. Ten incarnations, or 
Avatars, are specially designated. These are represented by the ten engravings in our Plate 
XIII. "All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets; with rays 
encircling their heads; jewels in their ears; two necklaces, one straight and one pendant on 
their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of many-colored flowers, or collars of pearls, hang- 
ing down below their waists ; loose mantles of golden tissue or dyed silk, embroidered on their 
hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder; with bracelets on one arm and on each 
wrist; they are naked to the waists, and uniformly with dark azure flesh; but their skirts are 
bright yellow, the color of the curious pericarpium in the centre of the water-lily ; they are 
sometimes drawn with that flower in one hand; a radiated elliptical ring, used as a missile 
weapon, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinum, in a third ; and a mace or bat- 
tle-axe, in a fourth." Nine of these incarnations the Hindoo tales describe as having already 
occurred. The tenth is to take place at some future period, when Vishnu will descend from 
heaven on a white winged horse, and will introduce on earth a golden a?e of virtue and peace. — 
It should be remarked in this connection, that Crishna is celebrated in Hindoo mythology as an 



Ub GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

incarnate deity. According to Sir Wm. Jones, he is considered distinct from all the Avatars; 
these had only a portion of the divinity; "while Crishva was the person of Vishvu- himself in 
human form " In the Hindoo pictures, Crishna sometimes appears among the Avatars; he is 
"more splendidly decorated than any of them, and wears a rich garland of sylvan flowers as low 
as his ankles, which are adorned with strings of pearls." 

See Sir Wm. Jones, on the gods of Greece, Italy, and India, in his Works and Life, by Lord Teignmouth, Lond 1807. 18 vols. 8. 
(vol. iii. p. 318.)— Cf. Monthly Papers of the A. B. Comrri. for For. Miss., Nos. ii. and vii. May and Oct. 1832.— Ward, as cited § 12. 

§ 26. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of Saturn and 
Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods and men, was called by the 
Greeks r 'Hpa, and by the Romans Juno. Her birthplace was assigned by the 
Greeks to Argos, or the island Samos, and to other spots in Greece, although 
her story and her worship were rather of Phoenician origin. The chief pecu- 
liarities of her character were love of power, and jealousy ; the latter passion 
was constantly inflamed and fed by Jupiter's infidelity. — In consequence of this 
jealousy she wrought several metamorphoses, as in the case of Calisto 1 and 
Galanthis 2 . Hence also her wrath against lo 3 and Semele 4 , and her ill-will 
towards the Trojans because Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest 
with Pallas and Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of Ju- 
piter, who once, according to Homer's representation 5 , suspended her in the air 
by a golden chain. Ixion's love for her was punished by Jupiter with ever- 
lasting torture, he being bound to a wheel constantly revolving. 

i Ovid, Metam. ii. 474. 2 /J. j x . 306. 3 lb. i. 568 ♦ lb. iii. 156. s Iliad, xv. 15, 18. 

§ 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her temples 
and festivals was very great. Her worship was especially cultivated in Argos, 
Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and Carthage, cities which committed themselves 
particularly to her protection. In Elis were games, every fifth year, sacred to 
her, called l HpoTa. This was the name also of her great festival celebrated at 
Argos and other places, which was likewise called sxatopfioia, because it was 
customary on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the 
goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome, called Junonia and Junona- 

Ua. From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called among 

the Romans Junones. The Roman women took their oaths in her name, as 
the men did in the name of Jupiter. Both Greeks and Romans honored her as 
the protectress of marriage. — The Romans dedicated to her the month of June, 
named 1 after her. — She is often described by the poets as the Queen of gods 
and men. 

l Ovid, Fast. vi. 26. 

1. Juno had a great variety of names; as Argiva, Cingula, Egeria, Juga (Zvyia), 
Luc'mia or Lucina, Moneta, Nuptialis (ra^Xia), Opigena, Fopulonia, Sospila, Unxia, 
&c. 

2 u. Her daughters were Hebe, goddess of youth ; and Ilithyia, who presided over 
births. Her messenger and servant was Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. 

3. Hebe was employed to hand round the nectar at the feasts of the gods. Her office of cup- 
bearer afterwards fell to Ganymedes. When Hercules was admitted to Olympus, Hebe became 
his spouse. — In fig. 4, PI. XIV. she is represented as pouring out the nectar, with the bird of Jove 
by her side. — In the beautiful design presented in the Sup. Plate 7, she is also seen pouring out 
the drink of the gods. 

§ 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness and jealousy 
of Juno in their representations of her. Among the symbols of her attributes, 
the most remarkable was the peacock, held as sacred to her; and found by her 
side in many figures. Sometimes her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She 
was frequently represented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, 
often contain the Empresses exhibited as Junos. 

1. She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron ; usually with a sceptre in 
her hand, and a veil on her head and a crown decked with flowers ; sometimes she 
has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is some- 
times at her feet. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 1. In the Sup. Plate 2, are 
seen two peacocks and the chariot, with Iris flying above. — Homer exhibits her in a 
chariot adorned with gems, having wheels with brazen spokes and naves of silver, and 
horses with reins of gold. But generally she is represented as drawn by peacocks in 
a golden chariot. 

2. The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the meaning 
attached to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typifying, or 



PLATE XII. 




98 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

allegorically representing, the active productive power in nature, Juno is the passive. 
Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories. 

§ 29. (6) Neptune. The government of the waters of the earth was, in the 
division of authority already mentioned (§ 22), assigned to the brother of Ju- 
piter, called IlotfftSwv, or Neptune. The idea of a god ruling the waters arose 
from the surprise of the first observers of the power of that element ; even be- 
fore Neptune, Oceanus, son of the heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, 
was honored as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the 
Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the 
earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune. 

1. A statue dug up at Rome about the sixteenth century, represents Oceanus as an old man 
sitting on the waves of the sea, with a sceptre in his hand, and a sea-monster by him. On an 
ancient gem he is represented in a similar manner. In our Plate XL11I. he appears in a recum- 
bent posture. 

2 u. The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of Nereus or Oceanus and 
Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish 
with a place among the constellations. The principal sons of Neptune were Triton, 
Phorcus, Proteus, and Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these minor deities of 
the sea were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The 
daughters of Nereus and Doris were the so-called Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in 
number. They belonged to the train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 

§ 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assist- 
ance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans ; the building of the 
walls and ramparts of Troy ; the creation and taming of the horse ; the rais- 
ing of the island Delos out of the sea ; and the destruction of Hippolytus by 
a monster from the deep. He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and 
deluges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his trident. The fol- 
lowing are some of his many names and epithets ; 'Ao^catoj, upholding the 
earth ; Sekji^cov, earth-shaker ; "irtrtftoj, Petreeus, Consus. 

1. Various etymologies have been given of the name no<m<5wi/ and Neptune. The 
latter is by some derived from Nubo, because the water covers or conceals the earth ; 
the former from xovg and feu, as Neptune binds the feet, that is, man cannot walk on 
the water. But such speculations cannot be relied on. The government and pro- 
tection of ships was committed to him. He also presided over the horse, which was 
sacred to him, and over horse-races; at the festival of the Consualia all horses were 
allowed to rest from labor. 

2 u. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from Egypt, 
but Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the coasts, as presiding 
over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus, on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a cele- 
brated temple, and also on the promontory of Taenarus. Of his temples at Rome, the 
most noted was that in the ninth district (cf. P. I. § 54), containing a suite of pictures 
representing the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were 
horses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the 
Romans the Neptunalia and the Consualia, which were afterwards, from the place of 
celebration, called Ludi Circenses. 

§ 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with the dignity 
ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front calm and serene even 
in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre, 
with three tines, with which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters 
into commotion. He is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in 
a chariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants. 

The representations of Neptune are various. Sometimes he stands upright in a 
large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green ; as in 
our Plate X. fig. 5. Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. Often he 
is sitting in a chariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn by sea-horses ; sometimes accom- 
panied by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLIII. His image is very frequent on coins 
and medals. He is described as having black hair and blue eyes. 

Cf. Vir%. Mn. i. 124. Horn. II. xiii. 20. Virg. Mn. i. 155. Stat. Achil. i. 60.— See Fontenu, Le Culte des divinites des eaux, 
in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. p. 27. 

§ 32 a. (7) Pluto. He was a second brother of Jupiter, and received, as 
his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions, or the world of shades. 
Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated down 
far below the earth, and they represented certain distant and desert lands as 



P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. 99 

serving for a path and entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respect- 
ing Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phlegethon, as being rivers of Hell. These 
regions below the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls, 
where after death they received rewards or punishments according to their con- 
duct upon earth. The place of reward was called Elysium ; that of punish- 
ment, Tartarus. 

1, The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks u<5*?s, Hades. It is im- 
portant to bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New Testament, where 
this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes hell, 
properly signifies the vjorld of departed spirits, and includes both the place of happiness 
and the place of misery. Cf. Luke xvi. 23. 

It was a part of the office of Mercury to conduct the shades of the dead in the region called 
Hades. Hence he is sometimes represented as in the act of opening or shutting the doors or 
gates of a tomb; as on the monument given in Plate XVIII. fig. 4. and in the Sup. Plate 14. 
This figure is given in Taylor's Calmet to illustrate the expression "Gates of Hades," in Matt. 
xvi. 18. 

On the meaning of the term Hades, see M. Stuart, Exegetical Essays, &c. Ando. 1830. 12. — Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv 
p. 539 ss.— Campbell, Diss, in his Transl. of the Gospels. 

2. Departed mortals were adjudged to Elysium or to Tartarus by the sentence of Minos and 
his fellow judges (cf. $ 34), in the Field of Truth.. — Elysium is described as adorned with beauti- 
ful gardens, smiling meadows, and enchanting groves; where birds ever warble ; where the 
river Eridanus winds between banks fringed with laurel, and "divine Lethe" glides in a quiet 
valley; where the air is always pure, and the day serene ; where the blessed have their de- 
lightful abode. — Tartarus is represented as a "hideous prison of immense depth, surrounded by 
the miry bogs of Cocytus, and the river Phlegethon which rolls with torrents of flames," and 
guarded by "three rows of walls with brazen gates;" here the Furies torment their wretched 
victims, and all the wicked suffer according to their crimes. — Virgil speaks of seven portions in 

the regions of the departed ; Tartarus and Elysium being the sixth and seventh. Although 

Elysium was considered by all as the residence of the blessed, its situation is variously stated; 
some placed it in the centre of the earth, adjoining Tartarus ; others placed it in the middle re- 
gions of the air ; others, in the moon ; others, in the sun ; more commonly, however, the man- 
sions of the blessed were said to be in the Fortunate Islands, Insula Fortunatw (cf. P. I. $ 183), — 
Tartarus is also variously located; Homer places it in the country of the Cimmerians, supposed 
by some to have been around Tartessus in Spain, and by others to have been near Baire in Italy ; 
Virgil places the entrance to it, or rather the entrance to Hades, in a cave near lake Avernus in 
Italy; others place the entrance at the promontory of Taenarus; others, in Thesprotia. — In the 
Sup. Plate 13, is a composition designed to represent the Tartarus of ancient mythology. Charon 
in his boat, Pluto with his sceptre, and the three Judges appear in the fore-ground, with several 
mortals awaiting their sentence. The Furies are lashing two criminals just given over to their 
power; and various offenders are suffering their peculiar punishments as narrated by the poets; 
for which see the history of Prometheus and others, especially Ixion and the other offenders 
mentioned under $ 34 b. 

On the views of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, cf. Homer, Od. xl—^schylus, in his Prometheus and 
Persae. — Plato, in his Pha?do. — Cicero, De contemnenda morte. and Somnium Scipionis. — Virgil, JEn. vi. cf. Tibull. El. i. 3. vs. 57 ss. 
— Gibbon, on Virgil's iEn. vi., in his Miscellaneous Works. — Heyne, Excursuses in his editions of Virgil and Homer (cf. P. V. § 50. 5. 
f 362. 4).— C. F. Nagelsbach, Die Homerische Theologie in ihrem Zusammenhange. Numb. 18-40. 8.— De Fuurmont, L'Enfer 
Poetique, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr, voL iii. 5.— Class. Journ. iii. 276. xl. 318. 

$ 32 u. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of 
nepo-£<t)6i>ri, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and the queen of the lower 
world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event 
are related fully and poetically by Claudian 1 and Ovid 2 , and furnished the ancient artists 
with frequent subjects for their skill in device and representation 3 . 

i De raptu Proserpina, L. iii. ^ Metam. v. 341. 3 See Montfaueon, Ant. Eipl. T. I. pi. 37-41.— See also our Plate X. 3. 

and the Sup. Plate 14 ; in both which the seizure and abduction are represented. 

The name of Proserpine was sometimes applied to Diana, when considered as a goddess of the 
lower world. Cf. $ 39. 

$ 33 u. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air menacing, terrible, 
and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit him upon a throne, with a bifurcated scep- 
tre, or a key, in his hand. A rod is sometimes put into his hand instead of his sceptre. 
The device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring- vessel, instead 
of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed from the images of Serapis. 

1. He appears crowned with ebony; sometimes with cypress leaves; sometimes 
with flowers of narcissus. He is also sometimes represented in the act of bearing off 
Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged dragons ; such is the appearance in our Plate 
X. fig. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 11 he appears with a long beard, in a sitting posture, rest- 
ing his head on one hand, holding in the other a long sceptre, with Cerberus at his feet. 

2. He is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer invisible; like the magic 
ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cic. de Off. iii. 9. Herod, i. 8). 

§ 34 a. His worship was universal ; but it was attended with special solem- 
nities in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia 
was also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated themselves to Pluto. 



100 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The victims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his prin- 
cipal names were Zsv$ 6T?vyto$, Soranus, Summanus, Februus. 

The Greeks named him UXovrwv as some suppose from xXovtvs, wealth, which comes 
from the bowels of the earth. The Romans gave him the name Vis, having the same 
sense. He is also called "AJ/?<r, Orcus, Jupiter infernus, &c. — His chief festival was 
in February, when the Romans offered to hjm the sacrifices called Februa, whence the 
name of the month. His rites were performed by night or «i the dark. The cypress 
was sacred to him, branches of which were carried at funerals. 

§ 34 b. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower 
world, Minos, Bhadamanthus, and JEacus. These decided the condition 
of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos held the 
first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in Grecian history as real 
persons. 

1 u. At the entrance to the world of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, lay the dog Cerbe- 
rus, a three-headed monster, that hindered the spirits from returning to the upper 
world. The most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were Ixion, 
Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the Aloides. 

2. Charon is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was to con- 
dupt the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Styx and Acheron to the realms of 
Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obolus, a small piece of money, it was 
customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the deceased before the 
funeral rites. Such as had not been honored with a funeral were compelled to wander 
on the shore a hundred years before they could be transported. 

In the Sup. Plate 14, Charon is seen sitting in his boat, in the act of receiving the obolus from 
a mortal introduced by Mercury. 

3. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial 
and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing them the honors of burial. For this trial all 
were carried across a lake in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon. 

Rollin, Anc. Hist. bk. i. ch. 2. sect. 2. — Cf. Class. Journ. vol. xxiii. p. 7. — Bulletin dts Sciences Historiques,\o\. iv. p. 352. 

4. There are numerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art which seem to refer 
to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be often symbolized by the figure of a pair of 
scales or balances, as if it were a weighing of the soul (xbyxocrraaia); to which there may be an 
allusion in the prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall of Belshazzar's 
dining-room {Dan. v. 27). In fig. B. of our Plate XVIII. is a representation of this kind; in 
which we see the Egyptian balances, and a number of priests and allegorical or mythical per- 
sonages. 

This drawing is reduced from one given in the great French work styled Description de VEgypte, &c. cf. F. IV. § 23'..— See Mem. 
de VInstitut, Classe d'Histoire et Lit. Anc. vol. v. p. S4. sur la Psychostasie, ou pesee des ames, with plate. 

§ 35. (8) Apollo. The earliest and most natural form of idolatry was the wor- 
ship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splendor, light, heat, and salutary 
influence upon all nature, were taken as the supernatural and independent powers 
of a deity. Hence the ancient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary, 
which was worshiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Per- 
sians under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of 
Phoebus (<£oij3os) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, considered their 
"ELuoj and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the history of Apollo 
many circumstances not connected with his original character as the god of 
light. 

The worship of the Persian Mithras {"Mithras Persidicus"), is said to have been introduced at 
Rome in the time of Pompey ; altars being erected with the inscription, Deo Soli invicto Mithra. — 
Some of the antique representations of this god are very remarkable. On the engraved stones 
called Abraxas (cf. P. IV. $ 200), he often appears under the figure of a lion, or of a man with a 
lion's head. In the Sup. Plate 9, are two representations. The first is from a bas-relief found 
at Rome, about 1600; the image is a man draped below the loins, having two wings on each 
shoulder, with a head partly that of a lion, and a lighted flambeau in each hand; a serpent 
twines around his shoulders and wings, and from his mouth issues a sort of fillet or ribin, 
which in the original monument floats over a blazing altar. — The other is from a marble bas- 
relief, found at Rome in a house near the theatre of Pompey ; in this Mithras appears a vigorous 
young man, with a turban on his head, his knee resting on a prostrate bull; with one hand he 
holds the nostrils, and with the other plunges a dagger (acinaces) into the neck of the animal; a 
dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while another lies near by, apparently barking; a scor- 
pion adheres to the lower side of the bull, and a slain or sleeping serpent is stretched at his feet. 
The monument has several accompanying images, some of which are given in the engraving, 
although not in their original place ; two youths appear with flambeaux, that of one being in- 
verted; a man with a radiated head occupies a chariot with four horses leaping in apparent 
fright; in another chariot is a woman with horns or crescents attached to her head, almost 
thrown out by the stumbling of her horses; denoting doubtless the sun and moon. 

See Monlfaueon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. p. 367-384.— Creuzer, Symbolik und Mylhologie, &c. vol. i. p. 345 ss. — Cf. Smith, Diet 
»f Antiq. p. 6. 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. APOLLO. DIANA 101 

§ 36. According 1 to both Greeks and Romans, Apollo was the son of Jupiter 
and Latona, bom on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god of the 
sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. They ascribed 
to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, which he proved in 
killing the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The last 
achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from Olympus. During 
his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd 1 with Admetus king of Thessaly. He 
also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the 
laborers with his lyre and songs. His musical contest 2 with Pan and Marsyas 
is referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable circumstances 
in his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation 3 into a laurel-tree; 
that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis 4 into a sun-flower; his friendship 
for Hyacinthus 5 , who was killed by Apollo's inattention, but changed into the 
flower of that name ; and for Cyparissus, also accidentally slain and changed 
into a tree 6 ; the indiscreet request of his son Phaeton 7 , to guide his father's 
chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt. 

i Ov. Met. ii. 680. 2 vi. 3S2. xi. 146. 3 Met. i. 452. < iv. 206, 256. s x . 162. 6 x . 106. 1 i. 750. 

§ 37 a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both Greeks and 
Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he gave oracles at Didyma, 
Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple at Delphi, and the oracle con- 
nected with it, was the most celebrated ; next in fame was that in Argos, and 
the one at Rome on the Palatine hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a 
famous library. The Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Pythian games, 
and the Romans those called ludi Apollinares and the ludi seculares. The 
laurel and olive, the wolf and hawk, the swan and grasshopper, the raven, 
crow, and cock, were sacred to Apollo. 

1 u. The following names were applied to Apollo: Cynihius, Delius, Nomius, Pa- 
lareus, Pythius (TlvOtog), Sminlheus, T/iymbrccus. 

2. He had also the following names: Adfta?, Ilaiav, 'E/oj/JdAoj, To^oQopos, A\£%ii«xKo$; 
Vvlturius, Epidellus, Lycius , D elphinius , Pelphicus, Actius. 

§ 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the 
highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal 
youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monuments with long 
hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow and lyre, and a quiver on 
his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most celebrated monument is the 
marble statue, called the Apollo Belvidere. 

A view of this monument is given in our Plate XLIV. fig. 3, drawn from Winckeimann. See 
P. IV. $ 186. 4. Cf. Tibull. L. iii. Ele. 4. v. 27. 

1. " Sometimes he is painted with a crow and a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a 
laurel-tree on one side and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet grass- 
hoppers creeping." Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the Muses: cf. § 103. 
He also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is 
seen in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many 
monuments; here is seen also an altar with a lyre sculptured on it. — -A statue of Apollo 
stood upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and was seen at a great 
distance at sea. 

2. The stories respecting Apollo resemble those in the Hindoo mythology respecting Crishna, 
who is sometimes painted in company with nine damsels, who are whimsically grouped into the 
form of an elephant, on which he sits and plays upon his flute. Crishna is also frequently repre- 
sented as the destroyer of the great serpent ; in some views he is held in the folds of the serpent, 
which is biting his foot; in others, he holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands, 
and crushes its head beneath his foot. 

Cf. Sir Wm. Jones, as cited § 25. 4 — Asiatic Researchti, vol. viii.— Calmet's Diet. &c. vol. iii. p. 529 of ed. Charlestown, 1813. 

§ 38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, and was born of Latona 
on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in Apollo the sun was 
deified and adored ; so was the moon (Juna, otX^jy) in Diana, who was called 
by the Greeks ""AptsfA.^. She was also recognised as the goddess of huntino- 
or the chase, of which she was passionately fond in her youth. She was like- 
wise viewed sometimes as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the name of 
Hecate. As presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with 
arrows, and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the grant of 
her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence 



102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

her displeasure at the transgression of one of her nymphs, Calisto 1 , and her 
transformation of Actaeon 2 into a stag-. The only one, towards whom she was 
not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph 
Chione 3 from jealousy of her beauty, and the daughters of Niobe 4 because 
Latona was slighted by their mother. 

i Ov. Met. ii. 464. 2 iji. 194. 3 ix. 321. * vi. 148-312.— Cf. Horn. II. xxiv.— Hyg. fab. 9. 

The story of Niobe and her children (cf. $ 81, $ 131), afforded .to poets and artists a rich subject 
for the embellishments of fancy. The number of the children is variously staled; Homer gives 
her six sons and as many daughters; while others say seven, and some even ten. In the splen- 
did group of statuary called Niobe and her Children (cf. P. IV. $ lbi6. 2), seven sons and seven 
daughters are represented. Montfaucon gives an engraving from a most beautiful antique, 
found at Rome, in which Apollo and Diana appear in the air discharging their arrows upon the 
unhappy family; the youngest daughter clings to her mother; a horse is leaping in fury upon 
another daughter; one son lies dead On the plain ; the other children are in attitudes of distress. 
In our Sup. Plate 17, this subject is represented in a composition, in which Amphion is 'intro- 
duced, and a concourse of the citizens of Thebes. — A person dying by plague or pestilence was 
said to be slain, if a male, by the arrows of Apollo; if a female, by the arrows of Diana. 

See Montf. Ant. Exp. vol. i. p. 107. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. iii. p. 109 ss. 

§ 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, nowhere had 
she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3.) With this 
exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, especially 
through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal temple at Rome 
was that erected by Servius Tullius on Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festi- 
val of the ludi seculares were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she 
was particularly honored under the name of Lucina, as presiding over births. 
In this view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia (ic-Kst^via)., 
although this was the name (cf. § 27) of a distinct divinity. 

1. The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to her goats, or a 
white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. The inhabitants of Taurica offered on her altar 
strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 

^ 2 it. Among her names were Phoebe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, Agrotera 
(dyporepa) ; Trivia (rptojrrts), from her statues being placed in crossways as she pre- 
sided over streets ; Chitone (Xirwi^) ; and Triformis (TpifiopQos), from her threefold 
character as goddess of the moon or month, the chase, and the lower world. 

"Diana is called Triformis and Tergemina: first, because though she is but one goddess, yet 
she has three different names as well as three different offices : in the heavens she is called 
Luna ; on the earth she is named Diana ; and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in the 
heavens she enlightens everything by her rays ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts by 
her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her by her 
power and authority: secondly, because she has, as the poets say, three heads; .the head of a 
horse on the right side, of a dog on the left, and a human head in the midst ; whence some call 
her three-headed or three-faced: thirdly, according to some, because the moon has three phases 
or shapes; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light; the half-moon fills a semi- 
circle with light; and the full moon fills a whole circle or orb with splendor." 

3. Other names or epithets were applied to her: ^o%eia, nvvnyds, dpiaixoiTos, ioxeaipa. 
and To%o<p6pos. 

§ 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments of art, tall 
and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her 
feet covered with buskins, with bow and arrows, either alone, or accompanied 
by her nymphs ; often with a hound near her ; often riding in a chariot drawn 
by two white stags. 

Tn our Plate X. fig. 7, she is seen in her chariot drawn by stags.— In the Sup. Plate 15, she is 
given as represented in a beautiful statue, supposed to have come from the same hands as the 
Apollo Belvidere. 

1. " Sometimes she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther in 
the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different colors." 

2 u. As the goddess of night, or the moon, she is represented in long robes, with a 
large starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent on her head. 

See Plate XLI.— Cf. Plate XIV. fig. 2.— See $ 76. 

3 u. We have figures of the Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek 
imitation of it, in which she is exhibited with numerous breasts, and very similar to 
Isis, whereby the fruitfulness of nature seems to have been -represented. 

Montfaucon gives several of these figures. One of the most remarkable is presented in our 
Sup. Plate 16; on the head of the statue is a double mural crown ; a large festoon is suspended 
from the neck, and within it are two images of Victory; on each arm are two lions; the body 
tapers to the feet like a Hermes, but is divided into four portions, the first of which is occupied 
hy numerous breasts, the second by heads of stags, and the third and fourth by heads of oxen. 

4. In the Sup. Plate 12, are three views of a statue of Diana Triformis, from Montfaucon; 



PLATE XIII. 




103 



104 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGX. 

presenting the three faces successively; the first fnce on the right with a torch in each hand ; 
the next face, with a knife (cidtrum) in the right hand, and a whip (Jlagellum) in the left; the 
third, with a key in the right hand and a serpent in the left. 

§ 41 a. (10) Minerva. Under the name of Minerva among the Romans and 
of IToaTiaj and 'Atyva among the Greeks, ancient fiction personified and deified 
the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter, 
sprung from his head. She is said first to have revealed herself near the lake 
Tritonis in Libya, from which circumstance she was called Tritonia. 

1. Some derive this epithet, and the Greek Tpiroytveia, from the word rptrw signi- 
fying head. 

2. Minerva is by some supposed to have been originally the Egyptian deity worshiped particu- 
larly at Sais under the name of Neith or Netha. Various etymologies of the Greek name 'AOrjvd 
have been given ; among them is the conjecture which derives it/rom the name of the Egyptian 
deity, by inverting the order of the letters ; Netha (vrjda), being thus changed, would form adrjv. 

§ 41 b. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts and 
sciences 1 , which had a great influence on their civilization. She was regarded 
as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinning, the use of the olive, and 
various instruments of war; in short, of most works indicating superior intelli- 
gence or skill. Arachne's contest with her in working with the needle, and 
consequent despair and transformation are beautifully described by Ovid. 2 

i Ov. Fastor. Hi. 815 a Ou. Metam. vi. 5. 

§ 42. The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiv- 
ing its name from her. The splendid temple at that place dedicated to her was 
called Parthenon, 1 in reference to her virgin purity (rtap^Voj). She had other 
temples, at Erythras, Tegea, and Sunium, 2 and several at Rome. Her principal 
festivals among the Greeks were the Panathensea, the greater and the less, and 
among the Romans, Quinquatria, on each of which, games and contests were 
held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found on her images and 
on the Athenian coins. 3 

i Respecting the Parthenon, see P. I. § 107. Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3. § 242. § 243. 1 2 On the remains of the temple of Sunium, 

cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. vi. p. 234. s See the Attic coin given in Plate XL. fig. 5. 

The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens :— When Cecrops built 
a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and it was resolved in the assem- 
bly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities found out the most useful creature to man, 
should give the name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse 
issued from the earth, Minerva caused an olive to spring up. The latter was pronounced the 
more useful thing, and Minerva therefore gave the city her own name, 'KQnva. Dr. Clarke 
imagines that this story had its origin from the fact, that the plains of Greece were once covered 
or nearly so with water, which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and 
thus a cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants. 

Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. Part II. sect. ii. ch. 12. 

§ 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a helmet, and 
the JEgis, or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's head, and with a spear 
and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet is generally ornamented 
with the figure of the owl, but presents various forms. 

1. In our Plate XI. fig. 6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory, 
with her right resting on a round shield bearing on it a Medusa ; her spear leans on her 
right shoulder ; the iEgis is seen on her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a sitting 
posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate 
20, the owl appears on one side and a cock on the other ; the iEgis on her breast is 
here very distinct. 

The term mgis (iiyis) signifies literally a goat-skin. Homer represents the atgis as a part of 
the armor of Jupiter, whom he distinguishes by the epithet diyioxps; yet he speaks of Minerva 
as using it (cf. II. ii. 447-449. xviii. 204. xxi. 400). 

2 u. The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were 
much celebrated; the former on account of the perfection of its workmanship (cf. P. I. 
§ 107. P. IV. % 160, 161, 179); the latter on account of the superstitious confidence 
placed in it by the Trojans, Greeks, and Romans. 

The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other, 
about three cubits high. It was said to have fallen from heaven into the citadel of Troy or 
Ilium before it was completely built, and that the oracle of Apollo being consulted upon this oc- 
currence, answered, that "the city should be safe so long as thatimage remained within it." 
When the Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thought of the first consequence to obtain this 
image. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in getting it by stealth (Vir.IEn. ii. 182). It was said 
to have been afterwards recovered from Diomedes by iEneas, carried to Italy, and finally lodged 
in the temple of Vesta. 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MlRS. VENUS. 105 

3 u. Besides the names Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was often called 
Ilapdf.vos, 'Epy&Tis, and 'Epyavrj, TloXias ; she is also termed Musica, Pylolis, and very 
often TXavKunis or Caesia. 

§ 44. (11) Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter and 
Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over rude and 
fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the 

credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. Notwithstanding the 

high idea which Homer gives of the strength and heroism of Mars, he repre- 
sents him as taken prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diome- 
des; it was, however, by the help of Minerva 1 . Besides these occurrences, his 
amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune 2 respecting the son of the 
latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all that is re- 
markable in his history. 

i Horn. II. v 383, 855. a Apollod. Hi. 14.— Pausan. i. 21. 

§ 45 a. He was most worshiped in Thrace, where probably the whole con- 
ception of such a god originated. He had however temples and priests in most 
of the Grecian cities. 

" Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, and his worship 

was comparatively neglected It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; 

he seems to have been derived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlike and barbarous 
tribe, rather than Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and 
probably was the same deity under another name." Tooke's Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. 

§ 45 b. The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder 
and protector of their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated 
to him a large public place, the Campus Martins, and a peculiar order of priests, 
the Salii, who celebrated his festival with music and dancing in solemn pro- 
cessions. 

1. It was a special business of these priests to guard the ancilia, or sacred shields ; 
respecting which see P. III. § 215. — A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars by 
the Romans is still preserved; see P. IV. § 114. 4.^ — To Mars was offered the sacrifice 
called Suovetaurilia ; a representation of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief, is 
given in our Plate XXIX. 

2. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for 
his fierceness : the dog, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also offered to 
him on account of their greediness. 

§ 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly vigor, with a 
strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, rather than vehement or 
passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes naked; 
sometimes in the attitude of marching, as Mars Gradivus. 

1. He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered with 
armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XI. fig. 7. 
Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch, drives the 
chariot over prostrate warriors ; such is the representation given in the Sup. Plate 10. 
Sometimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Dis- 
cord, Fear, Terror, and Fame. In4he Sup. Plate 6, he appears as ready for marching ; 
with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield. 

2. Bellona, called by the Greeks 'Ei/voj, is sometimes said to be the wife, sometimes the sister, 
and sometimes the daughter of Mars. She had a temple at Rome, and before it was a pillar 
called Bellica, over which the herald threw a spear when war was proclaimed. 

3 u. Mars was called "Aprn by the Greeks ; other names given to him are Odrysius, 
Strymonius, Enyalius, Thurius, Quirinus, Ultor. 

§ 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, and the 
love awakened by it, was in eastern fiction expressed and personified in an 
imaginary goddess ; she was called by the Romans Venus, and by the Greeks 
'Ac^podW//. According to the common story, she was born from the foam (a$p6$) 
of the sea; in Homer she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 
After her birth she came first to Cytherea, and thence to Cyprus. — Many of the 
gods sought her; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse. 

1 u. She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially, although with un- 
requited passion ; the early death of the latter she bitterly lamented. 

Ovid, Metam. x. 500, 717 83.— Bion, Idyl on the death of Adonis.— See also Tlieocritus, Idyl xv. which is a beautiful little comedy, 
recognizing the story of Adonis ; the scene is laid in Alexandria, at the time of a festival in his honor. 

14 



106 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The story respecting Adonis, the young favorite of Venus, is, that being engaged in hunting, 
of which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from a wild boar. At this Venua 
was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina restored him to life on condition of his spending six 
months with Venus and six with herself. It has been explained thus : Adonis, or Adonai, was 
an oriental title of the sun, signifying Lord; the boar, supposed to have killed him, was the em- 
blem of winter, during which the productive powers of nature being suspended, Venus was said 
to lament the loss of Adonis until he was restored again to life ; whence both the Syrian and 
Argive women annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation." — Adonis is supposed 
to be the same deity with the Syrian Tammuz (cf. Ezekiel viii. 14). — Lucian {De Syria Dea) gives 
an account of the festival Adonia, held in honor of him at Byblus. Cf. P. III. $ 77. 2. 

2 u. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to Venus the prize of 
beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the interests of the Trojans. 

§ 48. The most celebrated places of her worship were Golgi, Paphos, and 
Amathus, upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly consecrated to her; 
Cythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situated near the sea, and in delight- 
ful regions. In Rome she was honored as the pretended mother of iEneas, the 
ancestor of the nation, although her worship was first formally introduced from 
Sicily, in the sixth century after the building of the city. 

1. At Hierapolis, in Syria, was a splendid temple in honor of Venus, under the name of As- 
iarte or Atergatis, the Ashturoth of the Holy Scriptures. 
See Lucian, De Syria Dea.— Cf. Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii.—Culmet, vol. iii. p. 372. ed. Chariest. 1813.— Class. Journal, No. liii. 

2 u. The pigeon or dove, the myrtle, and the rose, were especially sacred to the 
goddess of love. 

3. The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were goats 
and swine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey. 

Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the traditions re- 
specting the universal deluge ; her rising from the sea being a type of the world emerging from 
the waves of the flood.— Bryant's Mythology.— HolwelVs Myth. Diet. 

§ 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the description and 

representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest idea of female beauty. 

The most distinguished antique statue of her is the famous Medicean Venus at 

Florence. 

Respecting this statue, see P. IV. § 186. 5. 

1. She is represented on coins and gems, and in the descriptions of the poets, in 
various ways ; sometimes she is clothed with a purple mantle glittering with diamonds, 
her head crowned with myrtle and roses, riding in a chariot made of ivory, finely 
carved, painted and gilded, and drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Sometimes she 
is attended with the Graces and several Cupids. At one time she appears like a young 
virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds the shell in her 
hand. In our Plate X. fig. 6, she stands on a wave of the sea, supported by two Tri- 
tons, with two attendant Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, with long 
tresses, drawing a mantle around her. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (cf. P. IV. 
# 222), she appears rising from the bosom of the waves and wringing her tresses on her 
shoulders. In the Sup. Plate 8, she holds one hand before her bosom and with the 
other presses her mantle close about her limbs. Montfaucon gives a figure very similar 
to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. In the Sup. Plate 7, she is 
seen in a reclining posture, with Cupid resting his elbow on her lap, while the Graces 
are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In the Sup. Plate 
9, she is strongly expressing her love to Adonis ; from an antique sculpture. In some 
representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant 
mirror. The Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the 
other. In Elis she was painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. — She 
usually had a belt or girdle called CesLus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to 
be folded. 

Heyne, Uber die Vorstellungsarten der Venus, in his Antiquar. Aufsatze.—Manso, Abhandl. (lber die Venus, in his Vermcheilber 
mythologiscke. Gegenstdnde. 

2 u. Various attributes were given to her, under the different characters of Venus 
Urania, Marina, Victrix, &c. She was likewise known under the names Erycina, 
Anadyomene (dvaSvoixevri), Paphia, Idalia. 

3. Her names and epithets were exceedingly numerous ; as, Cypria, UdvSrjjjto;, Cythe^ 
rea, ^iXofieiSfjs, TfX&ro-iya^of, Verlicordia, 'Eraipa, Acidalia, Libertina, Saligenita, 
OaXaaaia, &C 

§ 50. The son of this goddess, ""Epcoj, Amor, or Cupid, was her common 
companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to influence by his 
arrows. He is represented with a bow and arrows", often with a burning torch 
in his hand. He was very frequently exhibited on ancient works of art, and 
in agreat variety of forms 6 . Often several Cupids appear in company. — 'Aj^ipcoj, 



p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. VULCAN. 107 

inferos, who is usually considered the god of mutual love, was originally the 
god that avenges despised love. He is sometimes represented as wrestling 
with Cupid. 

a. See our Plate XI. fig. 9. » Cf. Manso, as cited § 49. 1.— See Plate X. fig. 6, and Sup. Plates 7 and 9. 

1 u. The attachment of Cupid to Psyche is the chief incident in his history and forms 
one cf the most beautiful allegories of antiquity. 

A representation of this is seen in our Sup Plate 8, according to a monument given in Mont- 
faucon. See also our Plate XLVII. rig. 5, cf. P. IV. $ 198.— The allegory is found in the Golden 
dss ofJpuleius (cf. P. V. $ 471. 2). 

2. Hymenseus was also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He presided 
over marriage. He was represented as of fair complexion, crowned with the amaracus 
or sweet marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color, 
indicating the blushes of a virgin. 

In the Sup. Plate 9, Hymenseus is seen leading by a chain Cupid and Psyche ; from an antique 
sculpture representing their nuptials. 

§ 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agencies of the 
elements, as well as the appearances of the heavenly luminaries, excited as- 
tonishment and were deified. Traces of the worship of fire are found in the 
earliest times. The Egyptians had their god of fire, from whom the Greeks 
derived the worship of "H^atc-r'oj, called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. 
Fable styles him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity 
his mother thrust him 1 from Olympus ; or, according to another story, Jupiter 
hurled him out, because he attempted to help Juno when fastened by the golden 
chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence, and 
was, according to the later fictions 2 , lamed by his fall. 

i Horn. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. a y a l. Flac. Argon, ii. 87. 

§ 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that are con- 
nected with the smelting and working of metals by means of fire, which ele- 
ment was considered as subject to him. His helpers and servants in such 
works were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and Gaia, whose residence also was 
in Lemnos, and of whom there are commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Ste- 
ropes, and Pyrakmon. These are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops 
of a later period. 

1. The epithet Cyclopean is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly walls, in 
which large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted together. 

Cf. P. IV. § 231. 3. Freret, L'Histoire des Cyclops, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 27. 

2 u. Mount iEtna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one 
of the iEolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — Works requiring peculiar art and 
extraordinary strength, especially when metals were employed as materials, were 
called by the poets Vulcan's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces of Phcebus 1 , 
of Mars 2 , and Venus 3 ; the golden chain of Juno 4 , the thunderbolts of Jupiter 5 , the 
crown of Ariadne 6 , the arms of Achilles 7 , and of iEneas 8 , &c. 

i Ov. Metam. ii. 1. a Stat. Tlieb. vii. 38. 3 Claud. Epithal. Honor, et Mar. v. 58. * Pausan. Att. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17. 

6 Ov. Metam. i. 258. 6 Ov. Fast. iii. 513. 1 Horn. II. xviii. 468. 8 virg. j£n. viii. 407. 

3. Vulcan is said to have formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman; she was called Pan- 
dora, because each of the gods gave her some present or accomplishment. 

In the Sup. Plate 4, is a composition designed to exhibit the gods assembled to bestow their gifts on the woman.— See Besiod, 
Works and Days, vs. 94. 

§ 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife Charis, or 
Aglaia; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva had rejected him. 
Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of Mars and Venus. The Giants 
Cacus and Caeculus were called his sons. — He was worshiped particularly in 
Lemnos, and the Vulcanian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon jEtna. 
At Rome the Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 

1. A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice to him. — Those 
who followed arts and employments requiring the use of fire, especially rendered honor 
and worship to Vulcan. "The lion, who in his roaring seems to dart fire from his 
mouth, was consecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were set apart to keep his temple." 

2 u. Some of his names are the following : Lemnius, Mulciber, Cyllopodes (kv\\o- 
"■<5cfyc), Amphigyeis (liixQiyvnsis). 

3. Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain, mentioned by Moses 



108 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

(Gen. iv. 22). Cf. Holwell, Myth. Diet. The ancients gave various etymologies of the name, 

Servius says it was derived from volitans, because the sparks of fire fly in the air; the account 
given by Varro is similar (see $ 54. 2). 

§ 54. Vulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, with hammer 
and pincers in his hands ; sitting more frequently than standing. His lameness 
is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it was in some ancient 
statues. 

1. Cicero, speaking of one of these statues, says (De Nat. Deor. i. 30), "We ad- 
mire that Vulcan of Athens, made by Alcamenes; he is standing, clothed, and appears 
lame without any deforrnity." — Some of the common representations of this god are 
seen in our Plate X. fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6. 

2. "That by Vulcan is understood fire, the name itself discovers, if we believe Varro, who says 
that the word Vulcanus is derived from the force and violence of fire (Vulcanius, quasi Volica- 
iius, quod ignis per aerem volitat, vel a vi ac violentia ignis); and therefore he is painted with a 

blue hat, a "symbol of the celestial or elementary fire." (Tooke.) "Vulcan was represented 

covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast was 
hairy, and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some represented him lame and deformed, 
holding a hammer in the air ready to strike ; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a 
thunderbolt on his anvil (a/cjua)i>). He appears on some monuments with a long beard, disheveled 
hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his head, with hammer and pincers in his hand." 
(Lemp.)— The medals of Lemnos usually bear a representation of Vulcan, with the legend Deo 
Vulcano. 

3. The representations of Vulcan show that the anvil of ancient times was formed like the modern. It was placed on a large block 
of wood (d/c/x<50£TOv) ; cf. Horn. Od. viii. 274. Virg. Mn. vii. 629.— In early times, it was made of bronze, as were also the 
hammer and pincers; cf. Horn. Od. iii. 433.— Smith's Diet. Ant. p. 512. 

§ 55. (14) Mercury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this god from the 
Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismegistus is so celebrated in their early history. 
According to the Greek and Roman fables, 'Ep^j, Mercurius or Mercury, was 
the son of Jupiter and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter 
in the cave Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by 
him among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their 
mother Pleione. 

The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dexterity, which 
he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in the most praiseworthy 
manner. This appears from the tricks related of him, and from the circum- 
stance, that he was considered as the god not only of mercature, but also of 
theft ; although the latter, in early times was not viewed so much as a crime, 
as an evidence of power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus 
guarded by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul- 
can, &c. 

1 u. By his flute the guardian of Io, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled to 
(Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means of his success in his feats was his 
eloquence ; this art was ascribed to him in a high degree. He invented also the lyre, 
attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and presented it to Apollo. In return 
Apollo gave him the celebrated wand (caduceus), the origin of which is variously stated ; 
its efficacy was potent in calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury carried 
this rod as the messenger of the gods, and employed it to awaken dreams, and to con- 
duct the shades of the dead to the lower world ; for he was called to offices and labors 
in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus. 

2. The caduceus was a rod with wings at one end, and entwined by two serpents in the form 
of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod adorned with green leaves, and 
witha skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed 
by the poets into serpents and wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have been 
given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings are 
the symbol of diligence : both necessary in the pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- 
cury patronized." 

On the mythological character of Mercury, Class. Journal, xvi. 224. — Boltiger' l s Amalthea, i. 104.— Bottigtfs Vasengem, ii. 97. 

§ 56 a. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding his wand, 
almost always in motion, either flying or rapidly marching, wearing a winged 
hat (petasus), and winged sandals {talarid). Sometimes he holds a purse in 
his hand, as the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in 
reference to his invention of the lyre. The cock was sacred to him, and appears 
sometimes as an attribute in the images of Mercury. 

1. In our Plate XL fig. 2, we have a common representation of Mercury flying ; and 
another similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. — In the Sup. Plate 7, he is seen attending on 
Jupiter and Juno.— In our Plate XVIII. fig. 4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustrations 



P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 109 

named Boor of Hell and Charon), he appears in his office of conductor of the shades 
of the dead. Cf. §32 a. 1. 

2 m. The monuments called Hermoe (see P. IV. §164) were originally statues of 
Mercury. They had their origin when art was in a very imperfect state, but were 
afterwards retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men. 

§ 56 b. The worship of Mercury was very common among Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was 
a particular festival (festum Mtrcatorum) held for the expiation of merchants, 
in honor of Mercury. 

1. At this festival, held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow 
or a calf, and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with 
water, prayed to him to forgive all their artful measures or falsehoods in pursuit of gain. 

2 u. The more common epithets applied to Mercury are Cyllenius, Atlanliades, Ales, 
Agorcsus (dyopaTog), Caducifer. 

3. Other common epithets are ' Apyticpovrr^ , fo&KTcop, and bSriydg • he is also termed 
<5dAioc, crafty; KcpocSog, as presiding over wealth; TpiK£</>a\o s , because his statues were placed 
where three ways met. 

§ 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans worshiped the inventor 
and god of wine, under the name of Bacchus, Bax^oj; the former also called 
him AioiaxToj. In the fictions of both, he was the son of Jupiter and Semele, 
a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to her request, Jupiter appeared to her in 
his full majesty and divinity, the fiery splendor of which caused her death. 1 
Jupiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet born, and carried him in his own 
thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some etymolo- 
gists, the poets called him d^vpa^oj, as having been twice born; a name 
which was afterwards given to the irregular hymns 2 sung at his festivals. 

i Ov. Met. iii. 260. 2 Cf. P. V. § 22. P. iii. § 77. 3. 

§ 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and related a multi- 
tude of achievements as performed by him. Especially was he celebrated for 
his advancement of morals, legislation, and commerce; for the culture of the 
vine and the rearing of bees ; and for his military expeditions and success, 
particularly in India. He was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle- 
worker, except in Scythia. 

1 u. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king of, 
Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a 
compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched. — Some 
of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into dol- 
phins 2 ; his residence upon the island Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by 
Theseus, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed her 
crown among the stars 3 ; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele 
back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone. 

i Ooid, Metam. xi. 85. 2 Met. iii. 650. 3 Fast. iii. 459. 

2. Bacchus is also said to have traveled into India with an army composed of men and women. 
The achievements of different personages are doubtless ascribed to him. Diodorus Siculus says 
that there were three who bore this name. Cicero says there were five. 

3 u. He is called by various names ; Lyaeus, Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus, 
Thriambus, Thyrsiger (cf. Ov. Met. iv. 11), Liber, Bimuter, &c. 

§ 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early in the East, probably 
in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced in the Grecian or 
Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who refused to participate in it, 
were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, for 
the same reason, were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cithaeron, 
Naxos, and Alea in Arcadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of 
Bacchus. — The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. 
Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because they are particularly 
injurious to the vine. 

1. The Oscoplioria, Epilcenia, Apaturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as 
festivals of this god. 

2 u. The most eminent of his festivals were the Trieterica and the Bionysia (see P. 
III. § 77. 3), in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra- 
tions at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finally on that account 
abolished (cf. Liv. xxxix. 8, ss.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 568. 

On the worship of Bacchus, see Frertt, Le Culte de Bacchus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxiii. p. 242.— G. /. Creuzcr. Diouysus, g. 



110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

comment. Acad, de Rerum Bacchic, originibus et causis. Heidelb. 18C9. 4.— Rolle, Recherches sur le Culte de Bacchus. Faris, 
3 vols. 8. 

3. In several points the story and worship of Bacchus resemble those of the Egyptian Osiris. 
There is also thought to be a striking resemblance between Bacchus and the Schiva of India (cf. 

Rhode, as cited £ 13). Sir Win. Jones (as cited $ 25. 4), considers Bacchus and the Hindoo Rama 

to be the same. "The first poet of the Hindoos," says he, "was the great Valmk, and his Ra- 
mayan is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity of action, magnificence of imagery, 
and elegance of style, far surpasses the learned and elaborate work of Nonnus entitled Biony- 
siaca (cf. P. V. $ 76), half of which, or twenty-four books, I perused with great eagerness when 
I was very young, and should have traveled to the conclusion of it, if other pursuits had not 
engaged me. I shall never have leisure to compare the Dionysiacks with the Ramayan, but am 
confident that an accurate comparison of the two poems would prove Dionysos and Rama to have 
been the same person." 
Cf. Constant, De la Religion, vol. W.—Voss, Antisymbolik.— Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. 

4. It is worthy of remark, that the abominations of the Dionysiac festivals are to this day practiced at the temple of Juggernaut in 
Hindostan. This god has two annual festivals. At the one called the car-festival, his image, " a block of wood, having a frightful 
visage painted black, with a distended mouth of a bloody color," is brought out of the temple in gorgeous array and placed on a stu- 
pendous car rising high like a tower, which rests on low wheels and is drawn by the crowd of votaries, attended with flags and 
banners, amid the sound of musical instruments and the 9houts of an immense multitude of pilgrims assembled from various and 
distant regions. In our Plate XIII a. is a representation of this ceremony : the horses, which appear attached to the car, are wooden. 
The car is covered with indecent figures painted all over it. At intervals the car is stopped, and the priests and boys connected with 
the temple render worship by obscene songs and lascivious actions to please the god, as they say, and cause him to move.— See Ward, 
View cf the Religion, &c. of the Hindoos. 

§ 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more dignified than 
those with which the later artists were accustomed to degrade him. By the 
poets and artists of antiquity he was exhibited as a handsome agreeable boy, 
just on the border of youth, with a form more resembling a female, than that 
of Mercury or Apollo, and with a joyful look. Of no other god have we a greater 
number or variety of representations, in statues, bas-reliefs, and gems, than of 
Bacchus with his train, Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. 

1. Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with 
swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, having 
in his hand a thyrsus, an iron-headed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine leaves ; as in 
our Plate X. fig. 8, where he appears also as a handsome youth, holding a wine-cup in 
one hand, and attended by a panther. In the Sup. Plate 15, he is a youth holding the 
thyrsus and leaning upon a column, with a tiger at his feet. Sometimes he appears an 
infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of grapes with a horn. Sometimes he is on the 
shoulders of Pan, or in the arms of Silenus. On the celebrated gem (cf. P. IV. § 211) 
which is given in our Plate XL VIII., he appears a bloated young man, borne by Satyrs 
and also attended by Cupids and Bacchanals. Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn 
by tigers, leopards, or panthers, surrounded by his retinue of Satyrs and Bacchae, and 
followed by old Silenus on an ass. 

For various other representations, see Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. Plates 142-167. 

2. In our Plate XLVIII. we have also a representation of Silenus, as given from an antique by 
Montfaucon; recumbent on the hide of a panther, with one hand resting on a skin full of wine, 
and the other on an inverted goblet.— An image of Silenus is mentioned by Pliny (Hist. Nat. 
xxxvi. 5), as existing in the marble quarry of Paros, said to be the work of nature. There is 
now in the same quarry a curious bas-relief, of which the image of Silenus forms a part. Dr. 
Clarke supposes this image to have been a lusus natures, and the other pieces now in the bas- 
relief to have been added to it by sculpture. " It represents a festival of Silenus. The demigod 
is figured in the upper part of it as a corpulent drunkard, with ass's ears, accompanied by laugh- 
ing satyrs and dancing girls. A female figure is represented sitting with a fox sleeping in her 
lap. A warrior is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XXII. fig. n and o]. 
There are twenty-nine figures ; and below is this inscription : AAAMA2 OAPYSHZ NYM<I>A12." 

§ 61. (16) Ceres. However useful the planting of the vine might be, agri- 
culture in general was much more so, and formed one of the earliest and most 
common pursuits of men. The observation of its importance and of the pro- 
ductiveness of nature occasioned the conception of a particular divinity, to 
whom its discovery and improvement were ascribed. The usual name for this 
divinity was A^/J^p among the Greeks, and Ceres with the Romans. She 
was considered as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a 
daughter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated 
in a fertile region of Sicily. 

In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, and to 
instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. To her is ascribed also the 
establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. Afterwards she im- 
parted her favors to other lands, and the people of Attica particularly boasted 
of her protection, and her instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough. 
She associated Triptolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent 



PLATE XIII a. 




112 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

him over the earth, to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him to the rank of 
a god. 

See Homer, Hymn to Ceres.— Ovid, Fast. iv. 507-562. Metam. v. 642-661. 

§ 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by Pluto has 
been already mentioned (§ 32m). Ceres sought for her with a burning torch 
everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture and good 
morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, Sup- 
plicated Jupiter for her deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on con- 
dition that Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she 
had just tasted of the pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and 
liberty to return to this world only for half the year. 

Ovid, Metam. iv. 552.— Claudian, De Raptu Proserpinae. Cf. P. V. § 386. 

1 u. To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circumstances; her 
changing herself into a horse and into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Nep- 
tune ; her transformation of Lyncus into a lynx, on account of his perfidy 1 ; and her 
punishment of Erysichthon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him 
with insatiable hunger 2 , so that he devoured at last his own limbs. 

i Ov. Met. v. 649. a lb. viii. 738.— Callim. Hymn, in Cer. v. 29.— See Ernesti's Excursus, in bis ed. of Callimachus (cited 

P. V. § 70. 2), vol. i. p. 262. 

2«. Ceres bore several names and epithets, as Arjcb, Qsajxo<p6pog, Sirto ; and Eleusinia, 
Erimiys, &c. 

3. The name AripfjTrip is by some derived from 6rj for yn and nfjrnp, signifying mother- 
earth. 

See Knight's Enquiry into the symbol. Lang. &c. Class. Journ. 

§ 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the ©£oy*o$6pia, 
which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially in Athens, in honor 
of her as having taught the use of laws. Still more celebrated, however, were 
the Eleusinian Mysteries, which were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were 
of two sorts, the greater and the less, the latter held annually, the former only 
every fifth year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with 
several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the Ilpo^potfta, and the 'Axwa, 
the Cerealia and the Jlmbarvalia. 

On the Eleusinian Mysteries, see P. HI. § 77. 4. P. IV. § 41. — Warburton, in his Divine Legation of Moses. — J. Meursii, Eleu- 
sinia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. A.—Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. et crit. sur Ies Mysteres. (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8.— 
Ouwaroff, Essai sur les mysteres d'Eleusis. St. Petersb. 1815. 8.— Bougainville, in the Mem. Acad, lnscr. xxi. 83.— Class. Journ. 
xiii. 399. xiv. 165. xv. 117. 

On the Thesmophoria, see JDutheil, as cited P. V. § 65. 3. On the Jlmbarvalia, cf. P. III. § 219. 

1. Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, and 
the burning of a fox (vulpium combustio). " A fox was burnt to death at her sacred 
rites, with torches tied round it ; because a fox wrapt round with stubble and hay set on 
fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn of the people of Carseoli, a 
town of the iEqui, as the foxes of Samson did the standing corn of the Philistines." 

Cf. Ovid, Fast. iv. 681.— Judges xv. 4.— Classical Journal, vi. 325. 

' 2. The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the Mysteries were celebrated, 
were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He found also a fragment of a colossal 
statue of the goddess among the moldering vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With 
great exertion that traveler procured the removal of the statue, in order to its being transported 
to England. 

See Clarke's Travels, Part ii. sect. 2. ch. 18.— Land. Quart. Rev. xvii. 202. 

§ 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are ears of 
corn, and the poppy, her usual ornament. She is often exhibited with a torch 
in her hand, to signify her search after Proserpine. 

In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady with a garland on her 
head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and\a cluster of poppies and 
ears of corn in the other. Thus she appears in our Plate XL fig. 5, and in the Sup. 
Plate 15. She also appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox, 
carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn 
by winged dragons. Her associate Triptolemus also appears occupying her chariot 
(Ov. Met. v. 646). 

§ 65. (17) Vesta. The ideas conceived in the Greek and Roman fables respect- 
ing the earth as a person and goddess were exceedingly numerous and various. 
Besides Gaia, Titaea or Tellus, who represented the earth taken in a general 
sense, they imagined Cybele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated ; 



P. II. INFERIOR GODS. CCELUS. 113 

Ceres more particularly signified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of 
Vesta or 'Ecrrca was employed to represent the earth as warmed by internal 
heat. The latter goddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness, 
being supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called the 
daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men the use of fire. 

1 u. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy (Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and 
granted to her the first oblations in all sacrifices. 

2. She is sometimes termed Vesta the younger, to distinguish her from Cybele (§19), 
who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesta the younger is the same with Ignis or fire. 

§ 66. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to Vesta, and for 
this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front of all houses. 
The same was done in the buildings termed Upvtavua, which were usually 
found in the Greek cities near their center; that at Athens (P. I. § 115) was 
the most famous. More rarely were temples raised for her. In her temple at 
Rome the celebrated Palladium was supposed to be kept. 

The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any image 
of the goddess. It still exists. Cf. P. I. § 60. 

§ 67 a. She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, bearing in her 
hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a priestess of 
Vesta that is thus represented. 

f In Plate XI. fig. 10, from a medal given by Montfaucon, we have such a representation. In 
the Sup. Plate 3, Vesta is seen as represented in a beautiful statue mentioned by Montfaucon 
(Vol. i. p. 64).— Vesta is sometimes exhibited holding in one hand a javelin or a Palladium; 
sometimes also with a drum in one hand and an image of Victory in the other. 

$ 67 u. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those among the Ro- 
mans under the name of Vestales, the vestal virgins, were much more celebrated ; the 
mother of Romulus having belonged to the order, although their first regular institution 
is ascribed to Numa. (Cf. P. III. § 218.) Their principal duty was to watch and keep 
alive the sacred fire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. § 43). Their rigid seclusion was 
rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sacredness was attached to their persons. 

1. The extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sudden and terrible disasters, 
and if it ever happened, all business was at once interrupted until expiation had been made with 
great ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely punished. The fire was 
every year renewed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays of the 
sun. 

2. In our Plate XXVIII. is a representation of a priestess of Vesta, holding a pan of fire. In 
the same Plate is seen a Vestal holding the cribrum or sieve ; from a statue in honor of the Ves- 
tal Tuccia, who is said to have vindicated her innocence by bringing water in a sieve from the 
Tiber. Cf. Val. Max. viii. 2. 

On Vesta and the Vestals ; Livy, i. 20.— Plutarch, Life of Numa.— Class. Jown. xv. 123, 257. xvi. 32.—Nadal, Histoire des 
Vestales, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 161, 227. — Lipsius, de Vesta, in his Works.— Dwpuy, La maniere dont leg 
anciens rallumoient le/ew sacre, Stc. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxv. p. 395. 



II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods, 

§ 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Inferior gods, 
are Coelus or 'Ovpavdc. ; Sol or "HXio? ; Luna or EeXjji/jj ; Aurora or 'Hm? ; Nox or Nuf ; 
Iris, T Iptj ; iEolus or A!iaXo s ; Pan, VLav ; Latona or Arjra) ; Themis or 6%t? ; iEscula- 
pius or 'AffK'Xrimds ; Plutus or 11\ovrog ; Fortuna orT^; and Fama ox^fiw, which 
were all common to the Greeks and Romans. But to this class are also to be referred 
several divinities, which were peculiar to the Greeks as distinguished from the Romans ; 
and also several, which were peculiar to the Romans as distinguished from the Greeks. 

§ 69. (1) Coelus. Although this god was considered as one of the most 
ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was attached to his 
worship either among the Greeks or Romans. His wife was the goddess of the 
earth, Tita3a or Gaia ; their offspring were the Titans, the Cyclops, and the Cen- 
timani. Through fear that these sons would deprive him of his kingdom, he 
precipitated them all to Tartarus, whence they were liberated, however, by the 
aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Furies 
were called daughters of Uranus, or Ccelus. 

$ 70 u. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation in the history 
15 k 2 



114 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

of early nations. According to the account of Diodorus 1 , Uranus would seem to have 
been a king of the Atlantides 2 , the founder of their civilization, and the author of many 
useful inventions. Among other things he was a diligent observer of the heavenly 
bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many of their changes. Admiration 
of such knowledge might lead to his deification. Perhaps it might occasion the use of his 
name (Ovpavdc) to signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap- 
pears to have been very ancient. 

i See Diod. Sic. iii. 56. v. 44. a The Atlantides were a people of Africa, living near Mt. Atlas. 

§ 71, (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans worshiped Apollo as the 
god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named him Pheebus, 
yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo espe- 
cially in the earlier fables, under the literal name applied to designate the sun, 
viz. Sol or "HAtoj. These words, therefore, were employed to express not only 
the actual body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate 
and personal existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is 
called the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his 
sisters. Many circumstances, which are mentioned as pertaining to him, are 
also related of Phoebus or Apollo, when considered as the god of the sun. 

See Ovid, Metamorph. ii. 

§ 72 a. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of the first and 
most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that the worship of this god 
was early introduced into Greece. Many temples were consecrated to Helius. 
The island Rhodes in particular was sacred to him, where was erected his 
celebrated colossal statue. Among the Romans his worship was organized 
with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who had been a priest of the same 
god in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome. 

Of his splendid temple at Heliopolis or Baalbec in Syria, said to have been erected by Antoni- 
nus Pius, interesting remains still exist. Cf. P. I. $ 166. 

§ 72 b. Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile form, entirely 
clothed, and having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the Horse, 
and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by four horses, 
which bear distinct names. 

1. Helius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man 
crowned with rays ; a specimen is seen in our Plate XIV. fig. 1. — A view of the colossal 
statue of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. This was reckoned among 
the seven wonders. 

2. The seven wonders of the world were, 1. The statue of the Sn n at Rhodes, 70 cubits high, placed 
across the harbor so that a large vessel could sail between its legs; 2. The Mausoleum, or sepulchre 
of Mausolus, king of Caria, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful 
columns (cf. $ 187. 4); 3. The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias (cf. P. IV. $ 170); 4. The tem- 
ple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in height, with a splendid image of the goddess ; 
5. The walls of Babylon built by Semiramis, 50 or 80 feet wide, and 60 miles in circuit (Rollin's 
Anc. Hist. bk. iii. ch. 1); 6. The pyramids of Egypt; 7. The palace of Cyrus. 

§ 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and was 
called ^s^rivfj by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent, and story from 
Diana or "Ap^f/t^, who was, however, taken as goddess of the moon. To 
Luna was ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. Pandia was 
said to be a daughter of Luna and Jupiter or Saturn". In common with her 
"brother Helius, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlan- 
tides. 

o Cf. Homer, Hymn to Luna. 

1 u. Both the Greeks and Romans consecrated appropriate temples to her, although 
the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more prevalent among 
them. She was represented like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot 
through the skies, with the stars as her attendants. 

2. She is represented on coins by the bust of a fair young woman with a crescent on 
her head; as seen in Plate XIV. fig. 3. 

§ 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was the goddess 
of the morning or day-dawn; styled by the Greeks 'Ewj or c H>£pa; by the 
Romans, Aurora. By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant 
Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus were her prin- 
cipal lovers, and Lucifer and Memnon her most distinguished sons. The latter 



P. II. INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. IRIS. 115 

is memorable for the honors paid to him in Egypt, and for his famous vocal 
statue at Thebes. 

1. The statue of Memnon is supposed to be one of those existing at the present day among the 
ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medinet Abou. A part of the body of it is said 
to be now in the British Museum. It is called by the Arabians Salavtat, the statue which bids 
good morning, a name evidently originating in a belief of the ancient and common tradition ; 
which was, that this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shone upon it. The 
statue is covered with inscriptions by persons declaring that they had heard its voice at the 
rising of the sun. — Mr. Wilkinson states, from experiment actually made by himself, that if a per- 
son in the top of this colossus, which is in a sitting posture, give it a blow with a hammer, it will 
cause a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of brass. 

See /. G. Wilkinson, on the contrivance by which the statue of Memnon was made vocal ; in the Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. 1834.— M. Letronne, Inscriptions Grecqueset Latines du Colossus de Memnon, &c., in samt 
Transactions, vol. iii. Lond. 1837.— Amer. Quart. Review, No. ix. 

2 u. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, although she seized 
and bore him away from his beloved Procris, whom, after his return to her, he had the 
misfortune to kill through an accident occasioned by her jealousy. — The early death 
of a youth was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theft by Aurora 

(HixEpa; apTrayri). 
On the story of Cephalus, see Ovid, Metam. vii. 661, 703. 

§ 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and of the 
day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the latter among the 
Greeks, 'H,uipa. By the poets she is represented as a beautiful young woman, 
whose chariot was drawn by white or light red horses, and who opened the 
portals of the Sun with rosy fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet 

t PoOO§apCT'D^OJ. 

She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe {KpoKonbAoc) , in a rose- 
colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was called the mother 
of the stars and of the winds. 

In the Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accom- 
panied by the Hours, and a flying Cupid with a torch in his hand. 

§ 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and placed among 
the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of this early origin she is 
called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of gods and men. Generally, how- 
ever, she is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage ; and in such a 
sense, sleep, death, dreams, the furies, &c. are called her children. 

1 1 . A black cock was the offering commonly presented to her. A black sheep was 
also offered to her as mother of the Furies. 

2 u. According to the descriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she 
is exhibited as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled 
with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses with 
a retinue of stars. 

3. Pausanias describes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and 
a black child in her left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears in our 'Plate 
XXXVI. She has also been described as a woman with her face veiled in black, 
crowned with poppies, and in a ch^iot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of Plate 
XIV., drawn from an ancient engraved gem, she holds a veil over her head, and three 
stars appear above it. In plate XLI. she makes a more splendid appearance with a 
large spangled veil, and a torch inverted ; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated 
manuscript. 

§ 77. (6) Iris. By the name of ^Iptj was designated among the Greeks the 
rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her father was said to be 
Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the daughters of Oceanus. Her 
residence was near the throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messenger 
to the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she w r as Jupiter's 
messenger, and was employed even by other deities. 

1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent on errands of strife 
and discord ; whence some have thought her name derived from epis, strife. Others 
derive it from eipco, to speak or declare. 

2 u. She had also sometimes in reference to dying females an office, which was 
usually assigned to Proserpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolution. 
Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704. The rainbow was the path by which she descended from 
Olympus and returned thither. 

3. She is represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often 
appears sitting behind Juno as waiting to execute her commands. In the Sup. Plate 



116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

20, she appears descending on a cloud. In the Sup. Plate 7, she is seen with Mercury 
and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno. 

§ 78. (7) JEolus. Under the name of iEoms both Greeks and Romans 
worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was called the son of 
Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of 
the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the winds, which 
had previously been formed into mythical persons, and were known by the 
names Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered 
the servants of tEoIus. 

1 u. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the Mediterranean sea, and 
let them loose only to further his own designs or those of others, in awakening storms, 
hurricanes and floods. (Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1.— Virg. JEn. i. 52.) He is usually de- 
scribed by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to strangers. 

2. The name JEolus is thought to have come from aioXog, changeable. — The island 
where iEolus is said to have reigned was Strongyle (IrpoyyvXri), so called on account of 
its round figure, the modern Slromboli. 

See Heyne, Excurs. ad jEn. i. 51.— Cf. Pliny, N. H. iii. 8. 

3. In the Sup. Plate 19, are two engravings marked as representations of JEolus. In one, a 
vigorous man supporting himself in the air by wings is blowing into a shell trumpet like a Triton, 
while his short mantle is waving in the wind ; this is from a bas-relief on an altar, found near 
Nettuno in Italy, with the inscription Ara Venloram; and it probably is merely the representa- 
tion of one of the winds, perhaps Eurus ; cf. $ 108 b. — In the other, we have a fragment of a 
square stone, which originally contained in bas-relief a representation of the circle of the Zodiac 
with its twelve signs, which were sculptured within the circle ; on the outer edge of the circle 
appear the busts of Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus; in the corner is the bust of a man with 
wings on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeks, which probably represents one of the four 
principal winds, the other corners of the piece having had each a wind represented in it. ^ 

See Montfaucoji, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. plate ccxxiv. 

§ 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, was Pan, 
whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god of shepherds and 
herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever pertained to rural affairs. His 
worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He was said to be the son 
of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite 
residence was in the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to 
Syrinx, who was changed into a reed 1 , he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him into his 
unlucky contest with Apollo 2 . He also invented a war-trumpet, whose sound 
was terrific to the foe ; a circumstance 3 which gave rise to the phrase, panic 
fear or terror (rtavixov dsl/xa). 

i Ov. Metam. i. 6S2. a jfi. x . 146. 3 Pausan. Phoc. c. 23. 

§ 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the form of a 
goat, and under the name of Mendes 1 . In Greece, Arcadia was especially 
sacred to him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycaeus. 
His festivals, called Avxcua by the Greeks, were introduced by Evander among 
the Romans, and by them called Lupercalia 2 ^ Goats, honey, and milk were 
the usual offerings to Pan. 

1 Eerod. ii. 46. 2 Ov. Fast. ii. 31, 267. 

1 u. His Greek name Ylav, signifying the whole or all, had reference to the circum- 
stance that he was considered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, 
it was derived from ttuw (to feed), and referred to his patronage of shepherds and their 
flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, Maenalius, and Lycaeus. 

2. " The figure of Pan (cf. Sil. Ital. xiii. 326) is a rude symbol of the universe, and he appears 
to have been originally a personification of the Jlnima Mu-ndi, or terrestrial soul, by which some 
ancient nations believed that the entire universe was directed." — This god does not appear in 
the poems of Homer or Hesiod. 

3 u. His image was generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a 
satyr, with ears sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body 
covered with hair or spotted, and the feet and legs of a goat. 

4. Such is his image in Plate XIV. fig. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has 
in one hand a crooked staff and in the other a pipe of reeds, and an amphora lies beside 
him. In some representations, his head was crowned with pine, which was sacred 
to him. 

§ 81. (9) Latona. She was called AqtCj by the Greeks, and held a distin- 
guished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this account was often 
ranked among the superior deities. She was daughter of Cceus or Polus and 



P. II. INFERIOR GODS. THEMIS. jESCULAPIUS. 117 

Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's love. The jealousy and anger of 
Juno was excited against her, and she adjured the goddess of earth to allow 
Latona no place to bring forth her offspring. Neptune, however, granted the 
island Delos for the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to 
Lycia, where 1 she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some 
peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. — Still more 
severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe 2 , a daughter of Tantalus and 
wife of Amphion king of Thebes. Niobe slighted the divinity of Latona, and 
the latter engaged both her children, Apollo and # Diana, to avenge her ; they, by 
their arrows, slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief 
was changed into stone. 

i Ov. Metam. vi. 335. 3 Ov. Metam. xi. 321. See also § 38. 

§ 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the island Delos, 
at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a festival was sacred 
to her, called 'Exbvaia. 

1 u. Latona is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible that 
her name originated in this idea, derived from Xj/0w, to be concealed, as nature was 
buried in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun and Moon or Apollo and Diana. 

2. She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, so 
painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. 

§83. (10) Themis. The goddess of justice (Qspti) was one of the 'most 
celebrated of the Titanides, or daughters of Uranus and Tita?a. To her is 
ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first introduction of sacrifices 
into Greece. She had by Jupiter three daughters, Aixr n °Ewo/.ua, and 'Etpri^, 
which were commonly called the Horse (J'Qpcu), who are represented by the 
poets in various lights, but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division 
and distribution of time (§ 105). Astreea also was by some called a daughter 
of Themis. 

1 u. Astreea was likewise a goddess of justice, or rather of property; and, according 
to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last of the divinities to quit, the earth. She 
was placed among the constellations of the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently 
called Erigone. 

2. Astreea, who according to some was the daughter of Titan and Aurora, was represented 
(cf. Jlul. Gell. Noct. Att. xiv. 4) as a virgin with a stern countenance, holding in one hand a pair 
of balances, and in the other a sword or scepter or a long rod or spear; thus she appears in the 
Sup. Plate 18, drawn from an engraved gem. 

3 u. There was still another goddess, Nemesis, Nfyiart?, who was supposed to judge 
respecting moral actions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was 
called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first erected a temple 
to her, and also Rhamnusia from having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 

4. At her temple in Rhamnus was a large and beautiful statue, ranked among the best works 
of Phidias. — In Plate XXXVI. are two representations of Nemesis, from ancient gems; in each 
the wheel appears at her feet; in one she has wings, and holds in one hand a branch with a 
ribin attached ; in the other representation she holds a rod or scepter. 
See Herder's Zerstreuten Blattem, Samml. 2. p. 213. 

§ 84. (11) JEsculapius. In proportion as men in the early ages were igno- 
rant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there was the greater ad- 
miration of those who were distinguished in the art of healing, and the greater 
readiness to deify them. Hence the deification of iEsculapius, who was 
viewed as the god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph 
Coronis 1 . Hygeia, the goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two 
celebrated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and 
Podalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. JEs- 
culapius was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the request of Pluto. His 
most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaums 2 , where he was worshiped 
under the form of a serpent. 

i Ov. Metam. ii. 591. 2 Ov. Met. xv. 622. 

1. The ruins of the temple at Epidaurus are still visible at the place now called Jero, pro- 
nounced Yero, a corruption perhaps of '\tpov (sacra cedes). There were at this ancient seat of 
the god of health medical springs and wells, which may yet be traced. 

Clarke's Travels, part ii. sect. 2. ch. xv.— F reret, Culte rendu a ^sculapius, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. 28. 

2 u. The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, either 
free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence and foresight. 



118 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

3. In Plate XIV. fig. 6, JEscidapius holds in one hand a round vase or patera, from which a 
serpent is eating. In the Sup. Plate 21, he is seen as presented in an ancient statue delineated 
in Montfaucon ; on his left is the trunk of a tree, around which the serpent winds ; on his right 
stands Telesphorus, who was said to be a son of ^Esculapius, and was considered as the god of 
convalescents; Telesphorus appears here, as in all representations of him, in a robe covering 
his arms and whole body, with a hood upon his head. iEsculapius and Telesphorus appear to- 
gether thus on a coin of Caracalla. 

4. Hygeia may be considered as the same with the Roman goddess of health, Salus. 
The Romans honored Salus with a temple and festivals. One of the city-gates, being 
near her temple, was called Porta Salutaris. She was represented with a bowl in 
her right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and 
lifting his head upon it. 

In Sup. Plate 21, we have a representation of Hijgeia from a beautiful statue ; she sits on a 
rock, with one hand raised and holding a scepter, and the other holding a bowl, towards which 
a large serpent is advancing his head over her lap. 

§ 85. (12) Plutus. The god of riches, Wkovto$, was probably of allegorical 
rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek is but the common term 
for wealth. His father, according to the fable, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by 
Electra, and his mother was Ceres, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in 
Crete. Jupiter, as it was allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and 
his usual residence was low beneath the earth. — By some Plutus is considered 
as the same personage as Pluto, ruler of the world of spirits, and this may 
have been the case. 

1 u. It is not known by what figure he was visibly represented. Pausanias barely 
remarks, that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant 
in the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held him as an infant 
in her arms. 

2. " Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, be- 
cause large estates come slowly. He is fearful and timorous, because rich men watch 
their treasures with a great deal of fear and care." 

§ 86. (13) Fortune. Of a like allegorical character was the goddess of For- 
tune, Tvxq* Fortuna, to whom was ascribed the distribution and the superin- 
tendence of prosperity and adversity in general. Among the Greeks she had 
temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna; and in Italy, before the building of 
Rome, she was honored at Antium, and especially at Praeneste. The Romans 
made her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets ori- 
ginating from different occasions; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda, 
Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c. 

1 u. In the temple at Antium were two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as 
oracles, and gave answer by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. 
Similar divinations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her temple was one of the 
richest and most celebrated. 

See Horace. Odes, 1. i. od. 35. (Ad Fortunam).— Cf. P. III. § 222. 

2. " The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient monuments with a horn of 
plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is blindfolded, and generally holds a 
wheel in her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy. Sometimes she appears with 
wings, and treads upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands." 

Her image in Plate XIV. fig. 9, is taken from an Imperial coin ; in her left hand is a horn of 
plenty ; her right rests upon a rudder ; a wheel is behind her. In the Sup. Plate 18, she appears 
without the wheel, with the images of the sun and moon on her head. 

§ 87. (14) Fame. The goddess styled "fc*^, or Fama, was also of allego- 
rical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of Earth, who gave birth 
to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of her sons, the Giants; in order 
that she might divulge universally the scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the 
other gods. She had a place in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a 
temple at Athens. She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both 
good and bad. 

1 u. The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, always flying about, 
accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity. 

Cf. Virg. iEn. iv. 173.— Ov. Met. xii. W.-Stat. Theb. iii. 426. 

2. In the Sup. Plate 18, is a representation of Fame with her wings extended as just ready to 
fly, with her finger pointing upwards. 

§ 88. (15) Deities peculiar to the Greeks. Athough generally the same deities were 
common to the Greeks and Romans, each nation had some peculiar to itself. These 
must be included in the class of Inferior Gods. Those peculiar to the Greeks were 



P. II. INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 119 

less numerous and important than those peculiar to the Romans ; and nearly all of them 
may be reduced under one or other of the four following divisions. 

1. Places^ rivers, mountains, &c, personified. Almost every important city was 
converted into a goddess, whose image was placed on its coins. Almost every river and 
stream also was made into a god, of whom some fabulous tale was related; thus Al- 
pheus is said to have pursued the nymph Arethusa from Greece to Sicily. 

2. Eminent personages deified. The most important of the deities belonging to this 
division would come under the class denominated Heroes ; although many of them are 
seldom if ever thus classed, as Orpheus, Homer, Trophonius, &c. ; besides many of 
later times. 

3. Virtues and vices personified. The Greeks did not. carry such personifications so 
far as the Romans ; yet imaginary deities were thus formed, and altars were erected to 
them in Athens and other cities. Some deified among the Greeks are not distinctly 
named among the Romans ; e. g. Chance, 'Atiro^arta ; Voracity, 'Addr)<p<xyia ; Lust, 
under the name of Kotvttcj, Cotyifo, a notorious prostitute. 

4. Particular pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to some guardian spirit. Thus, 
'Epyavri designated a goddess of'weaving, distinct from Minerva, to whom this term is 
applied. 'Ew, the goddess of war, nearly corresponded to the Roman Bellona ; and 
Kw//o f , the god of feasting, and Mw//oj, the god of jesting, are recognized in the Latin 
Comus and Momus. 

§ 89. (16) Deities peculiar to the Romans. These may be arranged under the fol- 
lowing divisions : 

1. Places, rivers, &c, personified. — 2. Pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to 
guardian spirits. — 3. Eminent persons, especially emperors, deified. — 4. Virtues and 
vices personified. — 5. Foreign deities introduced. 

§ 90. Of the first division, Roma and Tiber are the principal. Roma was honored 
by the Romans with temples, sacrifices, and annual festivals, and is one of the most 
common figures on their medals. 

In Plate II. is a splendid representation of the goddess Roma, from a painting formerly belong- 
ing to the Barberini family. — In the same Plate is given also a representation of the Tiber as a 
god. 

§ SI. In the second, various rural deities are particularly to be noticed. 

1 u. Terminus. In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of 
property and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, the Romans in- 
vented a god, who had it for his peculiar province to guard and protect them, called Ter~ 
minus. His statue, in the form of those called Hernial, was employed usually to mark 
the limits of fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular festi- 
val, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of February by the occupants' 
and proprietors of contiguous lands 2 . Upon these occasions offerings were presented to 
the god on the boundaries or separating lines. He had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. 
— Oftentimes the statues of other gods, particularly the rural, were placed in the form 
of Hennas, to mark the limits of landed property, and Jupiter himself was sometimea 
represented under the name of Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalis. 

i See § 56. P. IV. § 164. 2 a Cf. Ovid, Fast. ii. 639. 

2u. Priapus. The Romans ranked Priapus among the deities whose province 
was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was usually placed in 
gardens (Hor. 1. i. sat. 8), which were considered as more particularly his care. 

Images of Priapus were sometimes worn as a sort of amulet (fascinum) to guard against evi! 
charms, and hung upon the doors of houses and gardens. The god whose special province it 
was to protect from the charm of the evil eye was named Fascinus.—Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 4. 
xxiv. 4.— See P. III. $ 227. 3. 

Priapus is usually represented with a human face and the ears of a goat; he has a sickle or 
scythe to prune the trees and cut down the corn, and a club to keep off thieves ; his body termi- 
nates in a shapeless trunk. — An ass was generally sacrificed to him. 

Representations of Priapus are given in Plate XLV. and in the Sup. Plate 23. In the latter, 
with an extended arm he holds a bell in his hand. In the former, which is from a large anaglyph 
or bas-relief given by Montfaucon after Boissard, we may observe the rites practiced at the fes- 
tival of this god. It is celebrated by women ; two priestesses are close by the statue, one of 
whom is pouring water or some other liquid upon the image from a bottle ; four others are 
engaged in sacrificing an ass; behind the animal stand two others in peculiar costume, one 
holding apparently a sistrum, the other a bowl or round vase ; on the left of the statue are two 
women playing on the double tibia, and others bearing baskets of fruit and flowers and vessels 
of wine ; on the right are two playing on the tympanum, one dressed like a bacchanal with a 
child on her neck, and others with their offerings of fruit, flowers, and wine. 

3 u. Vertumnus. Under this name an old Italian prince, who probably intro- 
duced the art -of gardening, was honored after death as a god. The Romans considered 
him as specially presiding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Pomona, one of the 
Hamadryads (cf. § 101), a goddess of gardens and fruits, whose love he gained at last 
after changing himself into many forms, from which circumstance his name {Ov. Met. 
xiv. G23) was derived. This goddess is represented on some monuments of ancient 
art, and is designated by a basket of fruit placed near or borne by her. 

" Vertumnus is generally represented as a young man, crowned with flowers, covered up to 



120 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the waist, and holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left."— In the Sup. 
Plate 23, the horn is in his left hand, and the fruit in his right; he is fully draped, with the head 
and leg of a swine hanging from his shoulder. This may be supposed to correspoujlto his statue 
mentioned by Cicero (Verr. i.) and by Horace (Epis. 20) as standing in a street orRome. 

In the same Plate is a representation of Pomona, from an ancient monument; she is without 
drapery, holding a flower in one hand and a melon in the other, resting against the trunk of a 
tree, from which a basket of fruit is suspended. 

4 u. Flora. The Romans had also a particular goddess of blossoms and flowers, 
whom they worshiped under the name of Flora. She is said to have been the same as 
the Grecian nymph Clitoris; although others maintain, that she was originally but a 
Roman courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly unknown to the 
Greeks, since Pliny (N. H. xxxvi. 5) speaks of a statue of her made by Praxiteles. 
She was represented as very youthful, and richly adorned with flowers. She had a 
festival and games at Rome, celebrated (Ov. Fast. v. 283) in the month of April, called 
Floralia; they presented scenes of unbounded licentiousness. 

The indecency of this festival was checked on one occasion by the presence of Cato, who chose 
however to retire rather than witness it (Valer. Max. ii. 10). By some the festival is said to 
have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the name of Flora. 

In our Plate XIV. fig. 5, Flora is represented with a garland of flowers on her head, and a 
horn of plenty on her left arm; as she appears in several antiques. In Sup. Plate 23, she is 
given from a beautiful statue, once at Rome, and copied byLeBrun; not however identical 
with the celebrated Flora Farnese (cf. P. IV. $ 186. 11). 

5 m. Feronia. Another goddess of fruits, nurseries, and groves, among the Ro- 
mans, was Feronia. She had a very rich temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a 
grove specially sacred to her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves 
(P. III. § 324), who ordinarily received their liberty in her temple. It was pretended 
that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on burning coals. Her name 
was derived according to some from a town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte : accorcU 
ing to others, from the idea of her bringing relief {few) to the slave ; or from that of 
her producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit. 

6 u. Pales. Another goddess of the same 'class, was Pales (from pabulum), to 
whom was assigned the care of pasturage and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a 
rural festival ( Ov. Fast. iv. 721) was held in the month of April, called Falilia or 
Far ilia. 

On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed little heaps of straw in a particular order and at 
a certain distance ; then they danced and leaped over them; then they purified the sheep and 
the rest of the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like. The design was 
to appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and to prevent the diseases inci- 
dent to cattle. Milk, and wafers made of millet, were offered to her, that she might render the 
pastures fruitful. Pales is represented as an old lady, surrounded by shepherds. 

7. Numerous other rural gods and goddesses of inferior character were recognized 
by the Romans. Among the minor rural goddesses, we find Bubona, having the care 
of oxen; Seia or Segelia, having the care of seed planted in the earth ; Hippona, pre- 
siding over horses ; Collina, goddess of hills ; Vallonia, empress of the valleys; Run- 
cina, the goddess of weeding; Volusia, with several other goddesses, who watch over 
the corn in its successive steps to maturity (cf. § 5. 3) ; Mellona, the goddess who in- 
vented the art of making honey. Among the male deities of the same class, we find 
Occaior, the god of harrowing ; Stercutius, the inventor of manuring; and Filumnus, ' 
the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread. 

§ 92 u . In the latter period of the Republic and during the first ages of the Empire, 
the Roman system of divinities was greatly augmented. Almost every profession and 
employment and condition in life had its tutelar god or gods, whose names thus became 
innumerable, but who never obtained a universal worship. For a knowledge of these, 
we are mainly indebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers, especially Augustinus 
(de Civitale Dei, 1. ft,), against polytheism. To this class belong, for example, Bellona, 
the goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 'Ei/vw among the Greeks (§ 46) ; 
Juturna, the goddess of succor ; Anculi and Anculce., deities presiding over servants ; 
Vacuna, goddess of leisure ; Strenua, goddess of diligence ; Laverna, goddess of 
theft, &c. 

Diseases were exalted into deities. Febris (fever), e. g. had her altars and temple, and was 
worshiped that she might not hurt; and so of others of this species. — Mephitis was goddess of 
noxious exhalations. Tac. Hist. iii. 33. 

§ 93. Here we should mention Victoria, a deity of much consideration at Rome. 
The hall of the senate was adorned by her altar, and a statue in which she appears as 
"a majestic female, standing on a globe, with flowing garments, expanded wings, and 
a crown of laurel in her out-stretched hand." The senators were sworn on the altar 
of this goddess to observe the laws of the empire. A contest arose between the pagans 
and the Christians on this subject, the latter finally effecting the removal of this altar 
of Victory. 

See Prudentius, Advers. Symmachum, cf. P. V. § 387. 

In our Plate XIV. fig. 10, and in the Sup. Plate 18, Victory is seen as represented in the statue 
mentioned above. 



PLATE XIV. 




122 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

94m. D eified Emperors. To the gods already mentioned, we may add those 
which were constituted by the apotheosis of the emperors and their favorites. Thus 
a Caesar, an Augustus, a Claudius, an Antinous, and others, were elevated to the 
rank of gods. Sometimes this was done in their lifetime by the vilest adulation, but 
more frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants. 

It would probably be as proper to rank the deified emperors (cf. $ 133) in the fourth class of 
our division. They should be mentioned in this place, however, as belonging strictly to the 
number of the Roman divinities, in distinction from Greek. 

§95«. Virtues and Vices. The poets were accustomed to give a personal re- 
presentation to abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues and vices ; and 
in this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, which were, how- 
ever, sometimes mingled with the mythological, and were honored with temples, 
rites, and significant images and symbols. Such were Virtus, Honor, Pietas, In- 
vidia, Fraus, and the like. 

Virtus was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a square stone.— The tem- 
ple of Honor stood close by that of Virtus, and was approached by it. The priests sacrificed to 
Honor with bare heads. 

The temple of Fides (good faith) stood near the Capitol. The priests in sacrificing to her 
covered their hands and heads with a white cloth. Her symbol was a white dog, or two hands 
joined, and sometimes two virgins shaking hands. 

The temple of Spes (hope) was in the herb-market. Her image is on some of the coins. She 
is in the form of a woman standing, with her left hand holding lightly the skirts of her garments, 
and in her right a plate, with a sort of cup on it fashioned to the likeness of a flower ; with this 
inscription, Spes P. R. Similar to this is her appearance in Plate XIV. fig. 8, drawn from a 
medal of Titus. 

A temple to Pietas was dedicated in the place where that woman lived who fed with the milk 
of her own breasts her mother in prison. Cf. Plin. N. H. vii. c. 36. 

Concordia had many altars. Her image held a bowl in the right hand, and a horn of plenty in 
the left. Such is her appearance, sitting on a chair of state, in Plate XIV. fig. 11, taken from a 
consular coin. Her symbol was two hands joined together and a pomegranate. 

In the later periods of Rome, Pax had a very magnificent temple in the Forum, finished by 
Vespasian. The goddess of peace or security is often represented on Imperial coins. In Plate 
XIV. fig. 12, from a coin of Titus, she appears as a woman resting on a column, with a spike of 
wheat in the left, hand, and a scepter like the wand of Mercury in the right, held over a tripod. 

Fraus was represented with a human face and a serpent's body; in the end of her tail was a 
scorpion's sting. 

Invidia is described as a meager skeleton, dwelling in a dark and gloomy cave, and feeding on 
snakes. Ov. Metam. ii. 761. 

§96. Foreign Gods. It is proper to notice here some Egyptian deities, whose 
worship was partially introduced at Rome. 

1. Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled 
first over the Argives, and afterwards^ leaving them, to have become an illustrious 
king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said to be the same with 
the Io, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the fables changed by Jupiter into 
a cow. Osiris was at length slain by Typhon, and his corpse concealed in a chest and 
thrown into the Nile. Isis, after much search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs found 
the body, and placed it in a monument on an island near Memphis. The Egyptians 
paid divine honor to his memory, and chose the ox to represent him, because as some 
say a large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to 
others, because Osiris had instructed them in agriculture. 

Osiris was generally represented with a cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns ; he held 
a stick in his left hand, and in his right a whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears with 
the head of a hawk. 

In the Sup. Plate 26, are two engravings marked as representations of Osiris. The first is ac- 
cording to a colossal statue, dug up at Rome, and taken by some for an Isis. The second is from 
another sculpture, and shows the hawk's head. In Plate XV. he is seen in a sitting posture. — 
Cf. Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. vol. 2. p. 278, 290. — The image of a hawk with a vessel on its head, and 
that of the ibis with a serpent in its bill, have been taken by some as emblems of Osirisjsee 
Plate VIII. 

2. Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. Io after her metamorphosis is said, after 
wandering over the earth, to have come to the banks of the Nile, and there she was 
restored to the form of a woman. She reigned after her husband's murder, and was 
deified by the Egyptians. The cow was employed as her symbol, but more commonly 
the sistrum. 

Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full of ears of corn. Her 
body sometimes appears enveloped in a sort of net. On some monuments she holds in her lap a 
child, her son Horus, who is also ranked among the deities of Egypt. 

In the Sup. Plate 26, she is seen holding her son, on whose head is a cap surmounted by a 
globe ; her own head is formed into that of a cow, with a hawk on the forehead, surmounted by 
a singular cap. In Plate XV. she is seen as represented on the Mac Table. In the same Plate 
Horus is given as found on that Table. 

Some have considered Osiris and Isis as representing the sun and the moon. Their story is by others viewed as corresponding 
to that of Venus and Adonis. (Cf. Knight's Enquiry, &c.) — Some resemblances have been pointed out between Isis and Isa, a deity 
of the Hindoos, and Disa, a goddess worshiped among the northern tribes of Europe (cf. Tac. Germ. 9).— See Creuzer's Symbolic. 

The Egyptians had numerous festivals which were connected with the fables re- 



P. II INFERIOR GODS. FOREIGN GODS. 123 

specting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was termed the 
Isia ; which lasted nine days, and was attended with such licentiousness as to be at 
length prohibited by the senate. 

The Tsiac Table is a curious monument, which receives its name from its being supposed to 
represent the mysteries of Isis. The original was obtained at Rome, A. D. 1525, and came after 
some time into the cabinet of the duke of Mantua, where it remained until the pillage of that 
city, A. D. 1630; it is said to be now (1839) in the royal gallery at Turin. It is described as a 
tablet of copper or bronze, "almost four feet long, and of -pretty near the same breadth ;" and 
"covered With silver mosaic, skilfully inlaid ;" "the ground-work being a black enamel." It 
is divided into three equal compartments by two horizontal lines of hieroglyphics ; the middle 
compartment being subdivided by two perpendicular lines of hieroglyphics into three compart- 
ments, a larger one in the centre, and a smaller one at each side of it. The five compartments 
thus formed are crowded with figures, with hieroglyphics interspersed. The whole is surrounded 
by a border, also crowded with figures and hieroglyphics. The engravings in our Plate XV. are 
all drawn from this Table. In that Plate Isis is given as seen in the centre of the Table, sitting 
in a splendid gate-way. 

A fine engraving of the whole Table with some explanation, is given by Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. vol. ii. p. 340, as cited § 12. 2 (d). 
—It is given also in Caylus, Recueil des Antiquites, vol. vii. p. 34, cited P. III. § 13. 2.— Cf. Shuchford, Sacr. and Prof. Hist. Con. 
bk. viii.— Encycl. JLmeri. vol. vii. 83.— Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. 82. 

Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at Pompeii, is a Temple of Tsis. The columns 
which surrounded it are almost entirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of brick, 
and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square, and was not 
covered, but was surrounded by a covered gallery, which was supported by columns, and served 
for a shelter in bad weather. "In this temple have been found all the instruments which apper- 
tain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests, who had been surprised 
and buried byihe shower of cinders in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Their 
vestments, the cinders and coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which 
contained the lustral water, paterae employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve the 
intestines of the victims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis when they 
offered sacrifices to her, the attributes of the divinity with which the temple was adorned, &c, 
are still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ; 
and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in the situation in which 
they were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The walls 
of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess; there were 
figures of priests in the costume of their order : their vestments were of white linen, the heads 
of the officiating priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thin lace, through which the 
muscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. 

3. Apis. This is the name of the ox in which Osiris was supposed to reside, rather 
than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain marks ; his body 
was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a white crescent 
or sort of half-moon on his right side ; on his back was the figure, of an eagle ; under 
his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle (cantharus); and two sorts of hair upon 
his tail. This ox was permitted to live twenty -five years. His body was then em- 
balmed, placed in a chest, or So/w?, and buried with many solemnities. A season of 
mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to 
sight. — It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the 
second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high cham- 
ber in the interior of the pyramid a Zopd s , which, on being carefully opened, presented 
the bones of an ox. 

Mnevis is the name of the sacred ox consecrated to the Sun, and worshiped espe- 
cially at Heliopolis. He is described as being white. 

In Plate XV. are two representations, from the Isiac Table, supposed to be Apis and Mnevis; 
each is attended by two priests ; under the head of each is a standard supporting something, 
perhaps the eating-trough of the sacred animal. 

Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 201.— Earlier, L'Orig. du culte que les Egyptiens rendoient aux animaux, in the Mem. Acad. Inner, 
iii. 84.— Also Blanckard, Des animaux respectes en Egypte, in the Mem. tyc. ix. 20.— Prichard, as cited § 12. 2 ( f ). 

4. Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be the 
same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapca, were erected to him 
at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates a marvelous tale of the re- 
moval of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the southern shore of the Pontus Euxi- 
nus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much 
earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were introduced at Rome under the em- 
perors, but soon abolished on account of their licentiousness. — Some derive the name 
from Sopdc and "Ami, as having signified at first merely the cliest or box. in which the 
body of Apis was deposited. 

In the Sup. Plate 21, we have a very remarkable statue of Serapis; resembling as to the form 
of the body that of Cybele in Sup. Plate 5, and that of Diana Ephesia in Sup. Plate 10 ; around 
the body twines a huge serpent, whose tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the head 
appears at his feet; on the portions between the folds of the serpent are various figures of per- 
sons and animals. — In the Sup. Plate 25, we have another, more in the Roman style; Serapis 
sits, in full drapery, with sandals on his feet ; one arm raised in earnest action ; given by Mont- 
faucon as belonging to the cabinet of Fauvel. In the same Plate is another representation from 
an Abraxas (cf. P. IV. $ 200. 2); he holds a spear in his right hand, and points upward with the 

other; a Cerberus stands at his side. In all these images we notice the face and beard of a 

Jupiter, and also the calathus or basket on the head which is the mark of Serapis. 



124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

It has been supposed by some, and the notion is adopted by Dr. E. D. Clark, that the Egyptian Apis wa » a symbol of Joseph; am* 
that the various legends connected with the worship of this god grew out of the history of that patriarch.— Cf. Vossius, de Theologia 
Gentili. Anist. 1642.— Clarke, Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. 6. 

5. Anubis. This was another deity connected in fable with Osiris. He was said 
to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her search after her husband. 
He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Herrnanubis ; or, as 
others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a similar character. 

He appears to be represented in the monument exhibited in our Plate XVIII. fig. B. Cf. 
$ 34. 2.— In the Sup. Plate 27, we have images of Anubis. The first is from a piece of marble 
sculpture given by Montfaucon from Boissard ; he stands with one foot on a crocodile, holding 
in his left hand a caduceus, and in the right a short rod attached to a globe; by his head on one 
side is a palm-leaf, on the other a laurel -branch; on his right is seen also the head of Serapis, 
and on his left that of Apis, from which circumstance the inscription on the original monument, 
6E0I AAEA<I>OI, is supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. The other image in this 
Plate is drawn from an engraved gem; presenting Anubis with the Roman coat of mail and a 
bow and arrow. 

Cynocephalus is by some considered to be the same as Anubis; but this name in Egyptian 
mythology merely designates the dog as converted into a divinity. The term Cynocephali is ap- 
plied by Greek writers to a race of beings said to exist in Asia (Diod. Sic. iii. 34). The image in 
Sup. Plate 27, is given by Montfaucon, under the name of Cercopithecus, as being the monkey- 
god of Egypt. 

JElurus designates the cat, as deified by the Egyptians, and especially honored at Bubastis; 
whence the name Diana Bubastis, applied to the same animal. Their images are given in 
Sup. Plate 27. 

6. Harpocrates. He is supposed to be the same as Horns, son of Isis, and was 
worshiped as the god of Silence. He was much honored among the Romans, who 
placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usually represented in 
the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which ended at the points as it 
were in two buds ; in his left hand he held a horn of plenty, while a finger of his right 
hand was fixed upon his lips to command silence and secrecy. 

Cf. Porphyry, Cave of Nymphs (cf. P. V. § 199. 2;.— Class. Journ. iii. U2.—Mongez, Recueil des Antiquites. Par. 1804. 4. 

In Plate XLVII. fig. 1, from an Abraxas, we have Harpocrates sitting on the lotus flower; cf. P, 
IV. $ 198. In the Sup. Plate 25, the first image of Harpocrates presents him with a singular 
head-covering, from which a large horn descends below the shoulder. The second is remark- 
able, because he has the wing of Mercury, the panther-skin of Bacchus, the owl of Minerva, the 
hound of Diana, the serpent of iEsculapius, together with the horn of plenty. 

7. Canopus. He is said to have been the pilot or admiral of the fleet of Osiris in 
his expedition to India. In the Egyptian mythology he seems to be the god of the 
waters of the Nile. 

Nearly all the representations of him are formed by the head of a person or animal appearing 
at the top of one of those vases in which the Egyptians kept the waters of that river; the body 
of the vase is frequently covered with hieroglyphics. Two such representations are given in 
our Plate VIII. 



III. — Mythical Beings, whose history is intimately connected with that of the 

gods. 

§ 97. (1) Titans and Giants. The enterprises of the Titans are celebrated in 
the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have already been mentioned in the 
account of Saturn (§ 14), to whom they were brothers, being generally con- 
sidered as sons of Uranus or Ccelus and Titeea. The oldest was called Titan, 
and from him, or their mother, they derived their common name. The preva- 
lent tradition assigned to Uranus five sons besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Coeus, 
Japetus, Crius, and Oceanus ,- and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife 
of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thy a, Phoebe, and Tethys, called Titanides. 
On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which however Saturn and 
Oceanus took no part, the Titans were hurled by their father down to Tartarus, 
whence they were set free by the aid of Saturn. With Saturn also they after- 
wards contested the throne, but unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in 
speaking of Vulcan (§ 52), may be considered as belonging to the Titans. 

The number of the Titans is given variously ; Apollodorus mentions 13, Hyginus 6. 
The number of 45 is stated by some. The name of one of them, Japetus, is strik- 
ingly similar to Japhct, mentioned in the Bible, whose descendants peopled Europe ; 
and it is remarkable that in the Greek traditions Japetus is called the father of man- 
kind. Some have considered the Titans as the descendants of Gomer, the son of 



^v 




P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GIANTS. TRITONS. SIRENS. 125 

Japhet 1 . — They have also been supposed to be the Cushites, or descendants of Cush 2 , 
and the builders of the tower of Babel. — Others think them merely personifications 
of the elements 3 ; and suppose their fabled war with their father Ccelus, or against 
Saturn, an allegorical representation of a war of the elements. 

Hesiod's Battle of the Titans is often named as a remarkable specimen of sublimity. 
It will be interesting to compare 4 it with Homer's Battle of the Gods, and Milton's 
Battle of ike Angels. 

i Cf. Pezrvn, Antiquit. des Celtes. 2 Bryant, Analys. of Ancient Mythology. 3 cf. Hermann, Briefe Uber das Wesen der 

Mythologie. * Compare Horn. II xx. 54 ss. Hes. Theog. 674 ss. Milt. Parad. Lost, vi. 

§ 98. The Giants were a distinct class, although their name (ytya?, from yyj 
and yfVco) designates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, who gave them birth, after 
the defeat of the Titans by Jupiter, and out of vengeance against him. The 
most famous of them were Enceladus, Halcyoneus, Typhon, JEgeon, Ephialtes^ 
and Otus. According to the common description, they had bodies of extra- 
ordinary size and strength, some of them with a hundred hands, and with 
dragon's feet, or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated undertaking 
was the storming of Olympus 1 , the residence of Jupiter and the other gods. 
In order to scale this summit, they heaped mountain upon mountain, as GEta, 
Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Jupiter smote them with his thunderbolts, 
precipitated some of them to Tartarus, and buried others beneath the moun- 
tains. Typhon or Typhceus, for instance, he pressed down with the weight of 
iEtna 2 , under which, according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift 
himself up, and pours from his mouth torrents of flame. 

i Ov. Metam. i. 151. 2 Ov. Met. v. 346.— Claud. Gigantomach.— Find. Pyth. i. 31.— Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. 

Anc. vol. vii. 98. sur la nature allegorique des centi manes, &c— Banier, sur Typhon, in the Mem- Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 116. 

1. JEgeon or Briareus was another giant, eminent in the contest, with fifty heads 
and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge rocks at a single 
throw; but Jupiter bound him also under iEtna, with a hundred chains. — This story 
of the war between the Giants and Jupiter is also explained by some as an allegori- 
cal representation of some great struggle in nature which took place in early times. 
This contest is to be distinguished from that of the Titans, who, although often con- 
founded with the Giants, were a distinct class. 

2. Orion is by some also placed among the giants as a son of Gaia or Terra ; yet 
the more common fable ascribes his origin to the joint agency of Jupiter, Mercury, 
and Neptune ; according to which some derive his name from the Greek word dvpov 
{urina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, and after his death his name 
was given to a constellation. 

See Franroeur, as cited § 117 ( f ). — De Fourmont, Le fab. d'Orion, in the Mem. Acad, Inscr. xiv. 16. attempting to show a con- 
nection of the fable with the story of Isaac the son of Abraham. 

3. The Pygmies of the ancients were fabulous beings, of very diminutive size, supposed by 
some to dwell in Egypt and Ethiopia ; by others, in Thrace and Scythia ; and by others, in India. 

Cf. Ov. Met. vi. 90.— Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 2.—Heyne, on Horn. II. iii. 6.—Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. as cited P. IV. § 171.— Malta- 
Brun, in the Annales des Voyages, vol. i. p. 355.— Banier, Les Pygmees, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 101. — Calmet, as cited 
P. I. § 163 b. vol. iii. p. 113.— A W. Zwergius, De Pygmajis .Ethiopia:. Kil. 1724. 4. 

§ 99. Tritons and Sirens. Triton has already been mentioned (§ 29) as a 
son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most famous, the other various 
deities of the sea derived the name of Tritons. They were represented, like 
him, as half man and half fish, with the whole body covered with scales. 
They usually formed the retinue of Neptune, whose approach Triton himself 
announced by blowing his horn, which was a large conch or sea shell. 

A Triton is usually represented with the form of a man in the upper part, and the form of a 
fish in the lower. Sometimes the head of the fish is also retained; as in the Sup. Plate 19, from 
a sculpture given by Montfaucon ; where Triton is seen bearing perhaps a Nereid, or more pro- 
bably Venus Marina, since the figure at the right appears to be a Cupid. In Plate XLIII. Triton 
is announcing with his horn the approach of Neptune. — Cf. Ov. Met. i. 333. — Virg. JEn. x. 209. 

There were other minor divinities of the sea under Neptune ; but Triton seems to 
have had the pre-eminence, and under Neptune a sort of control among them. Phor- 
cus, Proteus, and Glaucus have been already mentioned (^ 29). Nereus was ranked 
among them as a son of Oceanus, and the father of the Nereides. Ino and her son 
Palaemon or Melicertes, are also said to have been admitted by Neptune as gods of 
his retinue. Palasmon is thought to be the same with Portumnus, whom the Romans 
worshiped as the guardian of harbors. 

§ 100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to be two in 
number, by others, three, and even four. Homer mentions but two 1 , and de- 
scribes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with them every 

"l2 



126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

voyager, who was allured thither by their captivating 1 music. They would 
have decoyed even Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, but were not permitted.— 
By others they were described as daughters of the river-god Achelous, and 
companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changed into birds 2 , 
that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the Muses 
in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emulation. Others 
make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the 
faces of women and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represent 
them as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds. 

i Horn. Od. xii. 30. 166. 2 Ov. Met. v. 552. 

Their fabled residence was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily; 
by others, on the islands or rocks called Sirennusre, not far from the promontory of 
Surrentum on the coast of Italy. — Various explanations of the fable of the Sirens have 
been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in 
pleasure. 

§ 101. (3) Nymphs. The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed as holding 
a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to the duration of life ; 
not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was 
considered as their common father, although the descent of different nymphs is 
given differently. Their usual residence was in grottoes or water-caves, from 
which circumstance they received their name, No^at. Their particular offices 
were different, and they were distinguished by various names according to the 
several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which they chiefly resided. 

1 u. Thus there were the Oreades, or nymphs of the mountains ; Naiades, Nereides 
(cf. § 29), and Potamides, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers ; Dryades and 
Hamadryades , nymphs of the woods ; Napcece, nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads 
were distinguished from the Hamadryads (ajxa dpv$) in this, that the latter were sup- 
posed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which they came into being, 
lived and died ; while the former had the care of the woods and trees in general. 

2. Places consecrated to these imaginary beings were called ~Nvft<paTa. Such was 
the celebrated spot in the vicinity of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which 
was seen to issue constantly from the ground (Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was 
the place and building at Rome which was called Nymphceum, adorned with statues 
of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and waterfalls. Festivals 
were held in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been stated as above 3000. 

See Fontenu, Le Culte des divinites des eaux, in Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 27. — Cf. Land. Quart. Rev. xvii. 192. 

They were generally represented as young and beautiful virgins, partially covered with a veil 
or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or grass, or having some- 
thing as a symbol of their appropriate offices. The several gods are represented, more or less 
frequently, as attended by nymphs of some class or other; especially Neptune, Diana, and Bac- 
chus. Under the term of nymphs, were sometimes included the imaginary spirits that guided 
the heavenly spheres and constellations, and dispensed the influences of the stars ; the nymphs 
being distributed by some mycologists into three classes, those of the sky, the land, and the sea. 

In Plate XLTII. Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune and Amphitrite.— In the Sup. Plate 
19, we have a Nereid upon a sea-monster which seems to consist of the lower part of a fish united 
with the heads of two horses, which she guides by reins ; one horse has two fins or wings instead 
of the two fore feet; from a gem of MafTei. In some representations, the Nereid appears a woman 
with the lower part of the body in the form of a fish, thus exhibiting the mermaid. 

§ 102. (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having in their fic- 
tions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; but assigned to 
particular branches of knowledge and art their appropriate tutelary spirits or 
guardian divinities, whom they called Muses, Movoat, and considered as the 
daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They were nine in number, according 
to the common account, with Greek names, as follows : K^tw (Illustrious), 
'KaTJkiortw (Fair-voice),M£%7to/.tiv7i (Singing), ©d'heca (Gay), 'Epatfw (Loving), 
'EvtspTtrj (Well-pleasing), Tsp^t^ops? (Dance-loving), UoKvpvia (Songful), and 
'Ovpavlu (Celestial) . 

The Romans termed them Camwnm. They were frequently called by common names, derived 
from places sacred to them, or from other circumstances, as Pieridcs, from Pieria, Jlunides, Heli- 
coniad.es, Parnassides, Hippocrenides, Castalides, &c. 

§ 103 u. In order to represent the Muses as excelling in their several arts, espe- 
cially in music and song, the poets imagined various contests held by them ; as, for 
example, with the Sirens, and the daughters of Pierus 1 , in which the Muses always 
gained the prize. They were described as remaining virgins, and as being under the 
instruction and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was Mt. Helicon, where 



P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GRACES. HORiE. FATES. 127 

was the fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. Parnassus, where was the fountain Castalia; 
the former in Boeotia ; the latter near Delphi 2 in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierus 
in Thessaly were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also consecrated 
to them among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their honor were instituted 
in several parts of Greece 3 , especially among the Thespians. The Macedonians 
observed a festival for Jupiter and the Muses, which was continued nine days. 

' On. Met. v. 300. 2 See View of Delphi and Parnassus forming the Frontispiece to this Manual. 3 See Itcyne, de Musar. 

religione, ejusq. orig. et causis in Comment. Soc. rig. Gotting. vol. viii. 

The Muses are usually represented as virgins with ornamented dresses, and crowned with 
palms or laurels. "According to the best authorities, Clio, History, holds in her hand a half- 
opened scroll ; Melpomene, Tragedy, is veiled, and leans upon a pillar, holding in her left hand 
a tragic mask; Thalia, Comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff resembling 
a lituus or augur's wand ; Euterpe, Music, holds two flutes or pipes ; Terpsichore, the Dance, 
is represented in a dancing attitude, and plays upon a seven-stringed lyre ; Erato, Amatory 
Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instrument; Calliope, Epic Poetry, has a roll of parchment in her 
hand, and sometimes a straight trumpet or tuba; Urania, Astronomy, holds in her left hand a 
globe; in her right a rod, with which she appears to point out some object to the beholder; 
Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Imitation, places the fore-finger of the right hand upon her mouth, 
or else bears a scroll in her hand." (Anthon's Lemp.) — Generally accordant with this descrip- 
tion, yet in some respects different, are the figures in our Plate XXXIX. ; where the Muses are 
represented as seen in the statues belonging to the collection of Christina queen of Sweden, and 
described by Maffei. — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing the 
Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, in which the nine are 
represented. 

"The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of 
them sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil of nature described them in that 
manner upon the agate which Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring; for in 
it was a representation of the nine muses, and Apollo holding a harp ; and these figures were 
not delineated by art (Plin. L. xxxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature." 
(Tooke's Panth.) 

For various representations of the Muses, see Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. vol. i. plates 56-62.— Museum Pio-CUmentinum, vol. i. 
plates 17-28. vol. iv. plates 14, 15. 

§ 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retinue of Venus belonged 
the Graces, Xapitfss, Gratias, servants and companions of the goddess, diffusing 
charms and gladness. They were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Eury- 
nome, or according to others of Bacchus and Venus herself, and were three in 
number, 'Aytoa (Splendor), ©casta (Pleasure), and 'Evfypoavvr} (Joy). They 
were honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal cities. 
Altars were often erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mer- 
cury, Venus, and the Muses. 

1 u. They are frequently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, com- 
monly in a group, holding each other by the hand, and without drapery. 

2. Thus they appear in the Sup. Plate 8, a representation which very nearly resembles whitt 
is seen on two beautiful antique engraved gems, given by Ogle, Ant. Exp. Plates 47, 48. In the 
Sup. Plate 7, the Graces are employed in adorfling Venus. An antique painting found, with 
other pieces, at Rome, in a vault near the Colisreum, in 1668, exhibits them dancing, with slight 
drapery. 

Cf. Pind. Olymp. xiv.— Manso, Abh. uber die Horen unci Grazien, in his Mythol. Versuchen. — Massieu, sur les Graces, in tha 
Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. iii. 8. 

§ 105. The Horse, '%>ch, were the goddesses of Time, presiding especially 
over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were considered as the daughters 
and servants of Jupiter. They came at length to be viewed as tutelary patrons 
of beauty, order, and regularity, in reference to which Themis was said to be 
their mother. They were named Ewo^ia, Avxrj, Elpr^. 

The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some writers to have had 
originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have afterwards lost their astro- 
nomical attributes, when moral ideas and qualities became more prominent in the 
Greek system of fictions. 

The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and garlands of palm- 
leaf, and all of the same age. In some monuments of later periods, four yours appear, corre- 
sponding to the four seasons. — In the Sup. Plate 10, the Hours are represented by four virgins 
attending Aurora. 

In representing the seasons, the Romans used the masculine gender; thus in our Plate IX. 
which exhibits them as sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we see four lads or young men, each 
with winss, and appropriate symbols of Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. The Romans 
also personified the Months, usually representing them by male figures. 

Cf. Winchehnann, Hist, de l'Art, 1. iv. ch. 2. § 83.— M< on tfaucon, Ant. Exp. Suppl. vol. i. p. 22 ss. Here he gives also, Plates 
5-16, from Lambecius, engravings of the representations of the months as beautifully depicted in a manuscript belonging to the Impe- 
rial Library at Vienna ; February alone is represented by a female. 

§ 106. (6) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of human 
life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to the notion of the 



128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Fates, called Motpat by the Greeks ; by the Romans, Parcse. They were three 
sisters, daughters of Night, whom Jupiter permitted to decide the fortune and 
especially the duration of mortal life. One of them Clotho (K^co^w), attached 
the thread; the second, Lachesis (Accosts), spun it; and the third, Mropos 
("Atportos), cut it off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as in- 
exorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their 
worship was not very general. 

The Pare® were generally represented as three old women, with chaplets made of wool and 
interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long robes, and employed in their works : 
Clotho with a distaff; Lachesis having near her sometimes several spindles : and Atropos hold- 
ing a pair of scissors. Such is their appearance in the Sup. Plate 14, which is not copied from 
any ancient monument, but designed after the description of the poets. 

See Catull. Epithal. Pel. et Thet. v. 305.— Mansers Abhandl. v. Parzen. in his Mythol. Versuchen. — Banier, Sur les Parques, in 
the Mtm. Mead. Inscr. vol. iv. 648. 

§ 107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the lower 
world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proserpine, 
whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, and often to inflict ven- 
geance upon the living. The Greeks called them 'Eplvws$, Furies; and also 
by a sort of euphemism, or from design to propitiate them, EvfxevlSus, signify- 
ing kindly disposed; the Romans styled them Furise. Their names were 
Tisiphone (from tft'tftj and $wo$), whose particular work was to originate fatal 
epidemics and contagion; Aledo, (from aXrjx'tos), to whom was ascribed the 
devastations and cruelties of war; and Megsera (from ^ycupco), the author of 
insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them among both the 
Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, if we may con- 
sider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to a separate goddess Fu- 
rina, as some suppose. 

1 u. They were represented witl\vipers twining among their hair, usually with frightful coun- 
tenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance. 

2. See the Sup. Plate 14, where they are seen in drapery, with the serpent locks and scorpion 
whips with which the artists represented them. On two vases in the Hamilton collection they 
have serpents in their hair. In the Sup. Plate 13, they are introduced as lashing a criminal with 
their whips. 

Cf. Virg. Georg. iii. 551. JEn. vii. 341, 415. xii. 846.— Ov. Met. iv. 474.— Cf. C. A. Bottiger, Furienmasken im Trauerspiel und 
auf d. Bild vverken d. alt. Griechen ; erne archaeol. Untersuchung. Weim. 1801. 8.— Banier, sur les Furies, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr 
vol. v. p. 34. 

§ 108 a. The fable of the Harpies, "ApTtvuxi, seems to have had reference 
originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which suddenly seizes 
and bears off whatever it strikes. Their names were JLello (from atMia, storm), 
Celseno (from x&cuvos, dark), and Ocypeta (from wjcurtsV^, flying rapidly), all 
indicative of the source of the fiction. 

They appear to have been considered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, and so 
were called QveWai (Horn. Od. xx. 66). They were said to be daughters of Neptune and Terra, 
and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the border* of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the 
Furies, to whom they sometimes bore off the victims they seized. 

They are represented as having the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and 
hands armed with claws, and sometimes as with the tails of serpents. See the Sup. Plate 14. 

Virg. j£n. iii. 210.— See Voss, Mytholog. Briefe. Stuttg. 1827. 3 vols. 12.— Lt Clerc (in the Bihliotheque Universale, vol. i. p. 148) 
supposes the Harpies to be merely locusts ; a conjecture which Gibbon seems to approve (Rom. Emp. vol. ii. p. 71. ed. N. Y. 1822). 

§ 108 b. (8) The Venti or Winds. It has been already remarked (§ 78) that the 
four principal winds were at an early period converted into mythical personages. 
Among both Greeks and Romans they gained the rank of deities. The Venti, 'Ave- 
fxoi, were eight ; Evpoc, Eurus, South-east ; 'AirnXiurn;, Subsolanus, East ; Kaikia; , Coecias, 
Aquilo, North-east ; Bopeac, Boreas, North ; Zxipov, Corus, North-west ; Zecpvpos, Zephy- 
rus, Occidens, Wegjt ; Ndro?, Notus, Auster, South; Alip, Libs, Africus, South-west. 

Little is handed down to us respecting the worship paid to the winds. An altar dedicated to 
them was found near Nettuno (cf. # 78. 3). Pausanias speaks of one erected at the foot of a 
mountain near Asopus, where annual sacrifices were offered to them at night. The most re- 
markable monument pertaining to these gods is the Temple or Tower of the eight Winds at 
Athens, still existing; said to have been erected about B. C. 150; a view of it is given in Plate 
XXI. fig. 2; see also P. I. $ 110. 

On each of the eight sides of this tower is represented one of the winds; Eurus, as a young man 
flying freely and vigorously; Subsolanus, a young man holding fruit in the fold of his mantle; 
Aquilo, a venerable man with a beard, holding a dish of olives ; Boreas, with boots on his legs, 
muffling his face in a cloak, and flying eagerly; Corus, also with boots and cloak, and holding in 
his hands an inverted vase of water; Ze-phyrus, a youth with naked breast, and carrying flowers; 
Notus, an old man with gloomy face ; Africus, also with melancholy looks and heavy wings. 



P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. DAEMONS. MANES. LARES. PENATES. 129 

In our Sup. Plate 20, Zephyrus is seen supported in the air, in company with Flora or Chloris, 
to whom he is said to have been married. 

See Forcellini Lex. Tot. Lit. as edited by Sailey, vol. ii. p. 1 155.— Leakt\i Topography of Athens.— Montfattcon, Ant. Fxp. 
vol. i. p. 413. 

§ 109. (9) The Dsemons or Genii, and Manes. In the earliest mythologies 
we find traces of a sort of protecting deities, or spiritual guardians of men, 
called Adipovss, or Genii. They were supposed to be always present with the 
persons under their care, and to direct their conduct, and control in great mea- 
sure their destiny, having received this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad dae- 
mons, however, as well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained, 
that every person had one of each class attendant upon him. 

From the notion of an attending genius arose the proverbial expressions indulgere 
genio and defraudare genio, signifying simply to gratify or deny one's self. 

The dcemons of classical mythology must not be confounded with the fallen spirits 
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing men in the time of 
Christ. 

See Farmer, Essay on Demoniacs. — Letters to Channing on Fallen Spirits, by Canonicus. Boston, 1828. — Cf. Brownlee, Lights 
and Shadows of Christian Life, p. 379. N. York, 1837. 12. 

§ 110. The Manes were a similar class of beings. Although often spoken 
of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more commonly to have 
been considered as guardians of the deceased, whose office was to watch over 
their graves, and hinder any disturbance of their tranquillity. They were sub- 
ordinate to the authority of Pluto, on which account he is styled Summanus. 
Some describe a goddess, named Mania, as their mother. 

1 u. The Romans designated by the name of Lemures, or Larvce, such spirits of the 
dead as wandered about in restlessness, disturbing the peace of men, issuing from the 
graves as apparitions to terrify the beholders. 

2. In Plate XXXVI. we have one face of a square sepulchral monument found at Brixia, on 
which two Manes are represented, each with wings and an inverted torch ; a representation not 
uncommon on such structures. 

See Marco's Abh. ttber d. Genius der Alten. in his Myth. Vers. — Simvn, Diss, sur les Lemures, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i.—Ov. 
Fast. v. 421.— Blum, Einleitung in Rom's alte Geschichte. Berl. 1828. 12. 

§ 111. (10) The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary spirits was 
carried further by the Romans than by the Greeks. The former assigned to 
each dwelling and family its guardian deities, which were called Lares and 
Penates. The Lares were said to be sons of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda, 
daughter of Almon. They received a variety of epithets or by-names, accord- 
ing to the particular object, over which they were in different cases supposed to 
preside, asfamiliares, compitalesj viales, patellarii, publici, privati. 

1 u. They were especially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and had 
in every house their proper sanctuary (lararium) and altar. They seem to have been 
viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, the fathers and forefathers of the 
family, who sought the welfare of their descendants. 

2. Public festivals were held in their honor, called Compitalia, which were made very joyful 
occasions ; the slaves of the family shared liberty and equality with their masters, as on the 
Saturnalia. 

The dog was sacred to the Lares, and an image of this animal was placed by their statues. 
These statues were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even formed in the shape, of dogs. 

T. Hem-pel, Diss, de Laribus. 2d ed. Zwiccav. 1816. 8.— Miiller, as cited § 112. 

§ 112. The Penates were also domestic or household gods, but they were not 
properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, because the master of the 
dwelling was allowed to select any deity according to his pleasure, to watch 
over his family affairs, or preside over particular parts of them. Accordingly 
Jupiter and others of the superior gods were not unfrequently invoked in this 
capacity. The gods who presided over particular families, were sometimes 
styled parvi Penates. While those that presided over cities or provinces were 
styled patrii or publici Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to the rank of 
Penates even living persons; especially emperors. 

The Lares and the Penates are often confounded, but were not the same. "The Penates 
were originally gods, the powers of nature personified; the mysterious action of which pro- 
duces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, to the common good, to the prosperity of fami- 
lies ; whatever, in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself. The Lares were originally 
themselves human being's, who, becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to hover round the 
dwelling they once inhabited; to watch over its safety, and to guard it as the faithful dog does 



130 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the possessions of his master. They keep off danger from without, while the Penates, residing 
in the interior of the dwelling, pour blessings upon its inmates." (jSnlh. Lemp.) 

A number of small bronze statues, representing Roman Penates, were found the last century 
at Exeter, in England. 

Cf. Virg. Mn. ii. 717. iii. 148.— Heyne, Excurs. ix. ad Virg. Mn. ii.— T. Hempel, Diss, de dtia Laribus, as cited § 111— Milller, 
dediis Rom. Laribus et Penatibus. Hafnise, 1811. 8. — For a notice, with plates, of the statues found at Exeter, see ihe. Archseo- 
logia, (cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. vi. published 1786. 

§ 113. (11) Sleep, Dreams, and Death. Among the imaginary beings sup- 
posed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, "Titvo$, ''Q^ipoj, and 
©dvartos, gained a personification, being called brothers, sons of Nox or night, 
and ranked among the deities of the lower world. 

1 u. The residence of Sleep, "Ynvos, Somnus, was said to be in Cirnmeria, on account 
of the perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region ; and the poppy, on 
account of its soporific qualities, was his common symbol. He is represented as hold- 
ing in his hand a light inverted and about to be extinguished. 

The last symbol was also employed in representing Qavarog, or Death, who was 
often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral monuments, and appeared in a 
similar bodily form, and not a mere naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death 
was the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks ex- 
pressed it by the word Krjp, and they fancied a sort of beings called Knpeg, who caused 
death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar distinction between mors 
and lethum. 

2.. In the representation of Somnus, given in our Plate XXXVI., he is a young man lying on the 
ground asleep, with one arm on the neck of a lion, and holding the capsule of a poppy. Thana- 
tos, or Death, stands by him with a scythe and wings, in a robe bespangled with stars, as he is 
seen in some paintings. 

The Romans imagined death as a goddess, Mors. The poets described her as roving about 
with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and dark wings. She is not often 
found represented on existing monuments of art; in one supposed to represent her, a small 
figure in brass, she appears as a skeleton, sitting on the ground with one hand on an urn. 

Cf. On. Met. xi. 592, 634, 640.— Lessing's Untersuchung, wie die Alten d. Tod gebildet. Berl. 1769. 4.— Herder's Abh. in his 
Zerstreuten Blattern. Th. 2. 213,—Spence, Polymetis, cited P. IV. § 151. 

3. The god of dreams was "Orapoc (Horn. II. ii. 56), more commonly called Mopcpevg, 
from the various images or forms (p-op<p>i) presented in dreaming. Morpheus is some- 
times considered as the god of sleep, but was more properly his minister; Phobelor 
((pofifiTbip), sometimes considered as the god of dreams, was another minister of Som- 
nus, and Phantasus ((pavTd(,w) another. 

Cf. Theory of Dreams, &c, illustrated by the most remarkable dreams recorded in History. Lond. 1808. 12. 

§ 114. (12) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the forests and 
woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, took its rise in the ear- 
liest ages either from the custom of wearing skins of animals for clothing, or 
in a design to represent symbolically the condition of man in the semi-barbarous 
or half-savage state. The Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, 
in their representation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a 
buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Panes, which 
had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of the brute. 

1 u. The Fauns were represented as older than the Satyrs, who, when they became 
old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans represented the Satyrs more like beasts, 
and as having the goat's feet. The Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to 
the retinue of Bacchus (§ 60). 

2 m. The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived from a national god Faunus, 
who was son of Picus (king of the -Latins) and the nymph Canens (Ov. Met. xiv. 
320, 336), and whose wife Fauna was also honored as a goddess. 

See Heyne , s Abh. von Unterschied. zwischen Faun. Sat. Silen. und Fanen, in his Sarnrnl. Ant. Aufsaize. Found also in Winch- 

elmann, Histoire de l'Art (cited P. IV. § 32) vol. i. p. 680. Ueber Faun. Sat. Pan. und Silenen. Berl. 1790-91. 8.— Voss, Myth. 

Briefe. 

§ 115. (13) The Gorgons. Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Phorcys and 
Cete, were termed Topyovss, from their frightful aspect. Their heads were said to be 
covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the tusks of a boar, and so 
terrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. They are described as having the 
head, neck, and breasts of women, while the rest of the body was in the form of a 
serpent. According to some they had but one eye and one tooth, common to them 
all, which they were obliged to use in turn. Their names were Sthe?w, Euryale, and 
Medusa. Medusa is said to have been slain by Perseus, who cut off her head, while 
they were in the act of exchanging the eye. 

They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. But then- 
residence is variously assigned ; some placing them in a distant part of the western 



p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. AMAZONS, ETC, 131 

ocean, others in Lybia (cf. P. I. § 179), and others in Scythia. Some have ex- 
plained the fable as referring to a warlike race of women, like the Amazons. Others 
suppose it to have had some reference to the moon as a dark body, which is 3aid also 
to have been called Topyoviov, from the face believed to be seen in it. 

Massieu, sur les Hesperides, and sur les Gorgones, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 28, 51. 

§ 116. (14) The Amazons. The Amazons were no doubt mythical being9, al- 
though said to be a race of warlike women, who lived near the river Thermodon in 
Cappadocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. They are said to have 
burnt off their right breast, that they might use the bow and javelin with more skill 
and force ; and hence their name, k\m^6vtc^ from a and//a£ds. They are mentioned in 
the Iliad (iii. 189. vi. 186) and called avnavcipai. 

Various explanations of the fable are given. Some consider it as having a connec- 
tion originally with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Amazons were 
placed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus {Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8) , and may have 
represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her own attributes. 

A figure resembling an Amazon, but having tour arms, is seen in the caverns of Elephanta. — In our Sup. Plate 22, an Amazon is 

represented with her bow and quiver of arrows. Traditions respecting a race of Amazons are said to be still current in the 

region of Caucasus. Cf. Edinb. Rev. No. lvi. p. 324. On the Amazons, see Creuza's Symbolik. 

§ 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particularly several Monsters, 
which are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology. 

(a) The Minotaur was said to be half man and half bull. The story is, that Minos, 
king of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull, which was de- 
manded by the god. The angry god showed his displeasure by causing Pasiphae, the 
wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through the aid of Daedalus, and give 
birth to the monster. Minos confined the Minotaur in the famous labyrinth. Here 
the monster devoured the seven young men and the seven maidens annually required 
from the Athenians by Minos. 

Theseus, by the aid of the king's daughter, Ariadne, slew the Minotaur and escaped the laby- 
rinth (cf. $ 125). 

(6) The Chimmra was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and lion united : the 
middle of the body was that of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, the fore 
parts those of a lion ; and it had the heads of all three, and was continually vomiting 
forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia, in the reign of Jobates, king of that 
country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratify his son-in-law 
Praetus, sends him against the Chimaera; but Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva, 
and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, destroyed the monster. 

This fable is by some supposed to refer to a volcanic mountain on the Lycian coast. — See Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. ii. eh. 8. 
(vol. iii. p. 211. ed. N. York, 1815).— Plin. N. Hist. v. 27.— .Banter, and Freret, on Bellerophon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 
37, 69. 

(c) The Centauri were said to be half men and half horses. Some make them the 
offspring of Ixion and the cloud ; others refer their origin to the bestiality of Centau- 
rus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaly. The principal inci- 
dents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at the marriage of 
Pirithous and Hippodamia, and the consequent battle with the Lapithae, who drove 
them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwards chiefly destroyed by Hercules. (Ov. 
Met. xii. 530.) — Some have imagined this fable to allude to the draining of the low 
parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general symbolical of water. 

Knight's Inquiry, &c. in the Class. Journal. — Cf. Mitford, ch. 1. sect. 3.— Banier, La Fable des Cent, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
Iii. 18. 

(d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirhoe, and 
to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades, 
where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and guarded by 
a two-headed dog called Orthos. 

The destruction of this monster formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules ($ 123). 

(e) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads, 
nine according to the common account. When one of these heads was cut off, an- 
other or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the wound was 
stopped by fire. 

The destruction of the Hydra was another labor assigned to Hercules, which he accomplished 
by the aid of Iolaus, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron as each head was removed. 
The arrows of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. 

(/) Pegasus was not so much a monster as a prodigy, being a winged horse said to 
have sprung from the blood, which fell on the ground when Perseus cut off the head 
of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Helicon, where he opened the fountain 
called Hippocrene (IWc and Kpfjvri). He was a favorite of the muses, and is called " the 
muses' horse." The horse, having come into the possession of Bellerophon, enabled 
him to overcome the Chimaera. Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from Jupiter, 



132 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

threw off Bellerophon to wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place among 
the stars. 

An engraving is given by Winckelmann of a beautiful bas-relief in white marble, representing Bellerophon and Pegasus; the 
original, preserved in the palace of Spada at Rome, is of the natural size.— See Winckelmann, Hist, de l'Art, vol. ii. p. 652. iii. 281. 
— Cf. Francceur, Uranographie ou Traite Elementaire d'Astronomie. Far. 1818. 8. containing the ancient Fables respecting the 
Constellations. 

(g) Cerberus was the fabled dog of Pluto (§ 34), stationed as centinel at the entrance 
of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, sometimes as having fifty. 
Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from the world of the living could pass 
him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific 
ingredients. [Virg. JEn. vi. 420.) 

To seize and bring up this monster was assigned to Hercules as one of his labors. 

(h) Scylla and Charybdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian shore, in 
the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirlpool or strong eddy 
over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected a fabulous story with each 
name. — Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but was changed by Circe into a 
monster, the parts below her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking, 
while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified 
at this metamorphosis, she threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks 
which bear her name. — 'Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Her- 
cules, and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. 

Cf. Virgil, 2£n. iii. 420 ss.— Ovid, Metam. xiv. 66.— Propert. iii. \\.—Hyginus, fab. 199. 

(i) The Sphinx was the offspring of Orthos and Chima?ra, or of Typhon and Echidna ; 
a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail of a 
serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. This monster 
infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants 
who could not explain them. At length one of the enigmas, in which she demanded 
what animal it was which walked on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three 
at night, was solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning 
of life creeps upon his hands and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening 
of his days uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphynx instantly destroyed 
herself. 

In Plate VIII. are given two images of the Sphinx. One is without wings ; having a peculiar 
Egyptian head-dress; from a sculptured monument given by Boissard. The other is from an 
engraved gem, given by MafFei ; having the calathus on her head, and the sistruni in her paw. 

Representations of the Sphinx are very common anions Egyptian monuments. A very celebrated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet 
remains near the pyramids. It is cut in the solid rock, and is 125 feet in length. — Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch. 4. — Denon's 
Travels (vol. i. p. 55. Lond. 1804).— Lund. Quart. Rev. xix. 193, 403 ss. 

(k) The Griffon (Tpvip) was an imaginary animal, said to be produced from a lion and an 
eagle, and supposed to watch over mines of gold and whatever was hidden. Its image is some- 
times found on ancient medals ; the upper part resembling an eagle, the lower part a lion. 

Cf. r«gi7,Ecl. viii. 27.— Herodotus, iii. 116.— Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 49.— .-2. F. Grafen von Veltheim, Von den Greifen der Alien. 
Helmst. 1799. 8. 

<J) In the Greek mythology Typhon is ranked among the Giants ; by some considered to be the 
same as Typhccvs (cf. # 98); by others distinguished from him; said to have been produced from 
the earth by Juno's striking it; described as having a hundred heads like those of a dragon. — 
In Egyptian mythology the monster called Typhon holds an important place, being considered as 
the cause of all evil, "the Egyptian devil." (Fosbroke.) He is described and represented in va- 
rious ways; sometimes as with a hundred dragon heads; sometimes as a wolf; sometimes as a 
crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a crocodile with the head and fore-legs of the hippopotamus, 
as seen in our Plate VIII. 



IV. — Mythical History of the Heroes. 

§ 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinguished even by the ancients : 
the unknown, aSrfkov, of which no historical monuments remained to make known 
the state of society ; the fabulous, fjuv&xov, of which the accounts left are mingled 
with manifold fictions; and the historical, latopuxov, of which a genuine and 
trustworthy history is recorded. The first extends to the deluge of Deucalion, 
the second to the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third 
through the subsequent times. To the second of these periods belonged the 
Heroes, as they are called, and it is on that account often styled the heroic age. 
These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary powers of body 
and mind, and distinguished merit is ascribed to them as having founded cities 



P. II. HEROES. PERSEUS. 133 

or countries, improved their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or de- 
fended them. 

§ 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progenitors was a 
most common cause of the sort of deification with which these heroes were 
publicly honored after death ; and the disposition towards this grateful remem- 
brance was quickened and sustained by oral traditions respecting their deeds, 
which were much adorned and exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that 
most of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter 
himself. The veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less uni- 
versal than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were 
established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and public 
solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, received only an 
annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and 
libations were presented to them. Sometimes, however, the respect paid them 
exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the 
gods. The introduction of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to 
Cadmus. 

Cf. Virg. Ma. iii. 301.— Sallier, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 299. 

§ 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some were viewed 
as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal existence w 7 atched over 
their families and friends and were honored and worshiped only by them. 
Others, whose services while they lived were of a more extended character, 
were worshiped by whole states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had 
their appropriate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To 
such was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the 
latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illus- 
trious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, but was adopted also 
among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be mentioned, in doing 
which the order of time will be followed. 

§ 121. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked among the 
Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same class, too, belong 
Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son Phoroneus, to whom various 
merits were ascribed ; and Ogyges, a king of Boeotia, memorable from the flood 
which occurred in his reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among 
their respective people and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state; Deu- 
calion, a Thessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general flood 
that happened in his times ; Amphictyon, author of the celebrated council or 
confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus, who came from Phoenicia 
to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve the people (cf. P. 
IV. §34; Danaus, to w r hom the kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advance- 
ment; Bellerophon, who was said to have destroyed the monster Chimaera, and 
to have performed other exploits ; Pelops, king in Elis, from whom Pelopon- 
nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula ; and the two 
princes of Crete by the name of Minos, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other 
as a warrior. 

Some writers argue against the existence of two individuals by the name of Minos. — See HScVs Kreta. Getting. 1823. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 122. Perseus was one of the most distinguished of the early heroes. He 
was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Polydectus on the island Se- 
riphus. His chief exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, whose 
head he struck off with a sword given to him by Vulcan. From the blood 
that fell, sprang the winged horse Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed 
over many lands. 

1 u. Of his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing king 
Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, and his deliverance 
of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be devoured by the sea-monster. In con- 
nection with the latter adventure he also changed into stone Phineus, who contended 
with him for the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon 
Polydectes ibr ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascribed the invention of 
the discus or quoit, with which he inadvertently occasioned the death of his grandfather 
Acrisius. Finally he founded the kingdom of Mycenae. After his assassination by 

M 



134 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Megapenthes, he was placed among the constellations, and several temples were 
erected to him, besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. (Cf. Ov. Met. iv. 
603. v. 1-350.) 

2. The fables respecting Perseus are by some considered as a modification of the story of the 
Persian Mithras (cf. $ 35), and a piece of ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel 
of Mycena? has been thought to confirm the analogy.— Creuzer, Syinbolik.—GeW, Itinerary of 
Greece. 

3. Atlas, whom on account of his refusing hospitality to Perseus, the latter is said 
to have changed into a mountain, is described as the son of Japetus and the king of 
Mauretania. 'He owned numerous flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding 
with citrons and oranges. His seven daughters, renowned for beauty and wisdom, 
were called Atlantides from their father, and Hesperides from their mother Hesperis. 
The gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were said to be guarded by a dread- 
ful dragon that never slept. The name of Atlas was given to the chain of mountains 
in that part of Africa, and to the ocean on the west. Whether from reference to the 
height of those mountains or to the astronomical researches of the king, Atlas is said 
to have supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have represented him as bear- 
ing an immense sphere on his shoulders. 

Thus he is seen in the Sup. Plate 22. On some monuments, Hercules is represented in a similar way ; because, as is said, he eased 
Atlas of his burden Cf. Ogle, Ant. Expl. plate 35. 

§ 123. Of all the Grecian heroes, no one obtained such celebrity as Her- 
cules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful strength was ascribed to him 
even in his infantile years. Eurystheus king of Mycenae imposed upon him 
many difficult enterprises, which he carried through with success ; particularly 
those, which are called the twelve labors of Hercules. These were : to kill the 
Nemeean lion ; to destroy the Lernaean hydra ; to catch alive the Stag with 
golden horns ; to catch the Erymanthean boar ; to cleanse the stables of Au- 
gias ; to exterminate the birds of lake Stymphalis ; to bring alive the wild bull 
of Crete ; to seize the horses of Diomedes ; to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, 
queen of the Amazons ; to destroy the monster Geryon ; to plunder the garden 
of Hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon ; and to bring from the infernal 
world the three-headed dog Cerberus. 

These various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion in the poets. 
The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. The twelve labors are described in 12 verses 
in the 3d Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf. P. V. $ 81).— The story of Hercules strangling the serpents while 
an infant is given in the 24th Idyl of Theocritus. 

§ 124 u. Many other exploits were ascribed tQ him, by which he gave proof of his ex- 
traordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer of the oppressed. 
Such were, his slaying the robber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of 
Prometheus, bound to a rock ; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus ; the contest with 
Achelous ; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less honorable was his 
love of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank into the most unworthy effemi- 
nacy. His last achievement was the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying 
gave his poisoned tunic toDejanira; Hercules afterwards receiving it from her, and 
putting it on, became so diseased that he cast himself in despair upon a funeral pile on 
mount CEta. 

The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were erected to his 
honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great many surnames and epithets 
from his exploits and from the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded 
the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and 
they very often employed them. 

Two of the most celebrated antique statues represent Hercules ; the Torso, or Herculese Belvidere, and the Hercules Farnese : cf. 
P. IV. § 186. 6, 7. The latter represents him leaning upon his club, as it were after his labors. A view of it is given in Plate XLIV. 
fig. 6, copied from Winckelmann. An engraving of the same is given in the Sup. Plate 22. The other representation in this Plate 
shows the infant Hercules strangling the serpent ; from an antique sculpture. 

For other principal representations of Hercules, see Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. i. pi. 123. 141, and Ogle's Ant. Expl. No. 31-10.— 
See also Laur. Begeri, Hercules Ethnicorum, ex. var antiq. reliquiis delineatus. Col. March. 1705. M.—Heynii Not. ad Apollodor. 
p. 325 — /. GurlitVs Fragment, d. archaeol. Abhandl. ub. Hercules. Magd. 1S00. 4.— Ph. Sutlmann, uber d. Mythos des Herakles. 
Berl. 1810. 8.— Dupuis, Orig. de tous les cult. vol. ii. — Respecting the ancient writers on the Mythol. of Hercules, see MUlltr's Hist, 
and Antiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. 1S30. vol. i. p. 523. 

Among the various solutions of the story of Hercules, there is one which very ingeniously applies the account of his twelve labors 
to the passage of the sun through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. A view of this is given in Anthori's Lempriere. 

§ 125. Theseus, a son of iEgeus and iEthra, or according to others a son of 
Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to engage in enterprises the 
most hazardous, and he successfully accomplished them. Among these was 
the extermination of a multitude of robbers and assassins that infested Greece, 
and especially the destruction of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, to 



P. II. HEROES. JASON. CASTOR AND POLLUX. 135 

which the Athenians had previously been compelled to send seven male youth 
and as many young virgins annually, to be devoured by him. By the help of 
Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the winding of the 
labyrinth, in which the monster had his abode, and put him to death. Ariadne 
accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he ungratefully deserted her on 
the island of Naxos. 

§ 126 a. The other principal exploits of Theseus were his descent to the lower world 
with his friend Pirithous, his victory over the Amazons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyta 
became his wife, and the assistance he gave Adrastus, king of Argos, against the The- 
ban prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislation and 
the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for some time an exile. The 
manner of his death is variously related, but it seems by all accounts to have been 
caused by violence. 

The honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple 
was consecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called Qwaa, held on 
the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular sacrifice termed OydoSiov. 
Provision was made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festivities 
of this occasion. 

Cf. Pint, in Vii. Thes.—Diod, Sic. L. iv. c. 61.— Ov. Metam. vii. 404 ; viii. 152 j xii. 210.— Milford's Greece, ch. i. sect. 3.— For 
a view of the temple of Theseus, see Plate XXI. fig. 3. 

§ 127. Jason and the Jlrgonauts. One of the most celebrated enterprises of 
the heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch in the Grecian history, a 
sort of separation-point between the fabulous and the authentic, was the Argo- 
nautic expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain 
the golden fleece, conducted by Jason, the son of iEson, king of Thessaly. 
The undertaking was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited the 
most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and among those 
who joined him were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirithous, and The- 
seus. The vessel built for the purpose was named Argo, which after various 
adverse events arrived at Ma., the capital of Colchis. iEetes was then king of 
Colchis, and promised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most difficult 
conditions. 

§ 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet iEetes was unwilling 
to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his com- 
panions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king's daughter, by whose 
assistance and magical art Jason slew the dragon that guarded the fleece, and 
seized the treasure. He immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was pur- 
sued by her father. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse 
into pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's pursuit. 
Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married Creusa, or, as others name 
her, Glauce, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took vengeance by 
causing the death of Creusa and also of the children she had herself born to 
Jason. After death Jason received the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a 
temple at Abdera. 

See the poems on the Argon. Exped. by Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, and Valerius Flaccus. (Cf. P. V. §§ 4S, 73, 376.) — Banier, 
on the Argon. Exped. in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 54; xii. !23; xiv. 41. — Heynii Not. ad Apollodor. p. 177.— »C. P. 
Levesque, sur le Retour des Argonauts, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e d. Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iv. 

Various explanations have been put upon the story of the Argonauts. One writer thinks the 
golden fleece was the raw silk of the East. Hager, Pantheon Chinois.— Another thinks the phrase 
arose from the habit of collecting gold, washed down from the mountains, by putting sheepskins 
in the channel of the streams. Mitford, ch. i. sect. 3. — Bryant (Anal. Anc. Myth.) considers the 
whole story as a tradition of the flood. 

§ 129. Castor and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, were twin sons 
of Jupiter and Leda, and brothers to Helena. On account of their descent, 
they were called Dioscuri (Atocfxoupot), although, according to some, Castor 
was the son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. Castor distinguished himself 
in the management of horses, and Pollux in boxing and wrestling-. The last 
exploit of the Dioscuri was their contest with Lynceus and his brother Idas. 
Castor was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux : and as Idas was about 
to avenge the death of his brother, Jupiter smote him with lightning. — Pollux 
obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and immortality in conjunction 
with his brother Castor. Both were placed among the constellations and re- 
presented by the Gemini or twins in the zodiac. Both the Greeks and the 



136 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Romans consecrated temples to them, and they were especially invoked and 
worshiped by mariners. 

1. They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from having cleared the 
Hellespont and the neighboring seas from pirates. They were invoked as 'Andrpoiroi, 
averters of evil : and white lambs were sacrificed to them. — The Romans honored them 
especially for services supposed to be received from them in pressing dangers, as in the 
battle with the Latins near lake Regillus. They constantly swore by their names ; the 
oath used by the women was JEcastor, or by the temple of Castor ; that of the men 
was JEdepol, or by the temple of Pollux. 

Representations of Castor and Pollux are found particularly on Roman monuments. A fine representation, drawn from a large 
gem given by Maffei, Is seen in our Sup. Plate 21. 

2. The festival called Dioscuria (SioaKovpia) was in honor of these brothers, celebrated 
especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts of Bacchus were very freely 
shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of Castor and Pollux, which 
Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoted friend Clitus. — This festival 
is supposed by some to have had the same origin as the famous mysteries of the Cabiri, 
which were celebrated particularly at Samothrace, and were thought to have great effi- 
cacy in protecting from shipwreck and storms. 

An ancient structure now exists at Salonica, which is supposed to have been a Cabirian Temple : see Plate V. — Cf. G. S. Faber, 
Mysteries of the Cabiri. Oxf. 1803. 2 vols. 8.—Freret, Les Cabires, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxvii. p. 9 

$ 130 u. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of Greece, the war of 
Thebes, which is dated upwards of 1200 years before Christ, is much celebrated. 
Without relating its incidents we shall here only name some of the principal heroes of 
the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, the two sons of GEdipus, king 
of Thebes, whose own private story was so tragical. The war arose from the dissen- 
sion of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were afterwards 
honored as demigods. Several famous chiefs, as Capaneus, Tydeus, Hippomedon, 
Parthenopasus, united with Adrastus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to 
take part in the war. The events connected with it furnished the poets with matter 
for numerous tragedies. — The second enterprise against Thebes, ten years later, was 
more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons and 
descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the war of the 
'Eniyom. The most illustrious of these were Alcmseon, Thersander, Polydorus, and 
Thesimenes. 

The Theban war was one of the favorite themes of ancient poets. Jlntimachus of Colophon, 
a Greek poet, and contemporary with Choerilus, wrote a poem in twenty-four books on the sub- 
ject; the fragments have been collected. Cf. P. V. \ 19.— The poem of the Latin poet Statius is 
still extant. Cf. P. V. $ 378. 

Cf. Paw. ix. 25.— Apollod. i. 3.— Diod. iv.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. \.—Keightley , s Mythology. 

$ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were involved in contention and calamity, Tanta- 
lus, and his descendants the Tantalides, were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, occasioned 
by the impiety of this prince, who was said to be a son of Jupiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being 
of immortal descent, he was honored with a visit from the gods during an excursion they made 
upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served up among other 
meats the limbs of his son Pelops, whom he had cruelly murdered. The gods perceived his 
perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish; but Ceres, whom the recent loss of her 
daughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the shoulders. In compassion to 
the fate of the young prince, Jupiter restored him to life ; and instead of the shoulder which 
Ceres had devoured, substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing by its 
touch all kinds of diseases. 

As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell ($ 34) with an insatiable 
hunger and thirst in the midst of abundance.— He had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to 
her intolerable vanity. She was married to Amphion, a prince of Thebes in Bosotia ; and having 
a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with over- 
bearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, who Q 38) 
destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris (cf. $ 38). Niobe, after the death of her 
children, returned to Lydia, and ended her days near Mt. Sipylus ; according to the fables, she 
was so shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. " On Mt. Sipylus, accord- 
ing to Pausanias, was to be seen a rock which from a distance resembled a woman in deep me- 
lancholy, though near at hand it had not the most remote resemblance to one." 

Pelops quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the 
daughter of king CEnomaus ; but this monarch, having been informed that he should perish by the 
hand of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in 
the chariot-race; and those who entered the list were to forfeit their lives if conquered. Un- 
daunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he 
previously bribed Myrtiles, the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the axle-tree of the cha- 
riot in such a manner as to break it on the course ; and the unfortunate king, being thrown to 
the ground, killed himself. CEnomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who 
acquired great celebrity, and gave his name to the peninsula in the southern part of Greece. 
Pelops, after death, received divine honors. He had an altar in the grove Altis at Olympia, and 
was much revered, even above other heroes (Pind. Olymp. i. 146. Pausan. v. 13). His descend- 
ants were called Pelopidm. His two sons, Atreus and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual 
hatred and crimes. But his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the jltridce, acquired a 
more honorable renown. 



P. II. HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR. 137 

$ 132 u. Heroes of the Trojan War. Of all the wars of Grecian story, none is 
more famous than that of Troy, which was the first military campaign of the Greeks 
out of the limits of their own country. The immediate occasion of it was the seizure 
of Helen, wife of Menelaus,, king of Lacedremon, by Paris, son of Priam, king of 
Troy. The siege continued, according to the common account, including the prepara- 
tion and marches, ten years, with various successes and disasters, until at last'the Greeks 
became masters of the city by stratagem. The chiefs who were engaged in this enter- 
prize acquired the highest renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured 
their everlasting remembrance. The chief commander was Agamemnon, and the more 
illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Menelaus, Ajax 
son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, Idomeneus, and Nesior. On the side of the 
Trojans, Hector, JEncas, and Antenor were among the most celebrated. 

The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself than for its consequences. It 
gave a new spring to Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40). The arts of war were greatly 
improved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took place in most of the states. 
But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales. 

SeeMtford, ch. i. sect. 4.— Gillies, ch. i. iii.— Class. Journ. v. 14. 18. vi. 25. ix. 605, 626. xviii. 141.— Chandler, History of 
Troy. See references given in P. V. § 50. 7.— Bryant (in a Dissertation on the war of Troy, Lond. 1799. 4) has maintained that 
the whole tale is a mere fable, and that there never was any such war. 

§ 133. Although the personages specially called Heroes in Grecian story belonged to 
the period termed the heroic age (cf. § 118) ; yet under our fourth division of the subject 
of Mythology (cf. § 10) will properly fall the names of a multitude of personages of 
later periods, including Romans as well as Greeks, who after their death were deified 
in the country where they lived, or had become renowned (cf. § 88. 2, and 89. 3) for 
memorable attainments or achievements. Merely to have been a king or ruler was 
sufficient to secure deification among a people fond of the pageantry of superstition. 
This servile and impious adulation was particularly practiced by the Asiatic Greeks 
towards the successors of Alexander. Mere governors of provinces were sometimes thus 
honored. After the Roman imperial power was established, it became a regular cus- 
tom (cf. § 94) to deify the emperors. 

The Roman senate made it their business by solemn decree to place every deceased emperor 
in the number of the gods, and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of his 
funeral. But as the actions of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was impos- 
sible to connect with the deified name - such fabulous and mysterious tales as to give the divini- 
ties, thus established by law, much hold upon the popular feelings. The list of imperial demi- 
gods, therefore, is of comparatively little importance in a view of the ancient mythology. 

This deification of the emperors, it is very likely, gave rise to the beatification of saints, practiced by the Roman Catholics. 
See Middleton's Letter from Rome, showing the conformity between Popery and Paganism. Lond. 1729. 4. 6th ed. 1825. ?. — 
Also in his Miscellaneous Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8.— Cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall, &c. ch. iii. 
Respecting the ceremonies attending the Apotheosis, or Consea-atio, see P. III. § 343. 



18 m2 



PLATE XVa. 



Gods of the Greeks and Bomans, as classed in the preceding Sketch. 



1. Superior Gods. 

Jupiter Juno 

Neptune Minerva 

Apollo Diana 

Mars Venus 

Mercury Vesta 

Vulcan Ceres 

Janus Rhea 
Saturn 
Pluto 
Bacchus 



2. Inferior Gods. 



Coelus 

Sol 

iEolus 

Plutus 

iEsculapius 

Pan 

Luna 

Aurora 

Nox 

Iris 

Latona 

Themis 

Nemesis 

Fortuna 

Fama 



Several Gods 
peculiar to 
the Greeks 
(cf. § 88) ; 

Enyo 

Ergane 

Cotytto,&c. 

Several Gods 
peculiar to 
the Romans 
(cf. § 89) j 

Priapus 

Terminus 

Vertumnus 

Pomona 

Flora 

Feronia 

Pales, &c. 



3. Mythical Beings. 


4. Deified 


Titans 


Manes 


Inachus 


Giants 


Lares 


Phoroneus 


Pygmies 


Penates 


Ogyges 


Tritons 


Satyrs 


Cecrops 


Sirens 


Fauns 


Deucalion 


Nymphs 


Gorgons 


Amphictyon 


Muses 


Amazons 


Cadmus 


Graces 


Centaurs 


Danaus 


Hours 


Minotaur 


Pelops 


Seasons 


Chimara 


Minos 


Fates 


Geryon 


Perseus 


Furies 


Hydra 


» 


Harpies 


Pegasus 




Winds 


Scylla 




Genii 


Charybdis 




Somnus 
Mors 


Sphinx 
Typhon 





Heroes. 
Hercules 
Theseus 
Jason 
Castor 
Pollux 

and 
Heroes 
of the 
Theban 
and the 
Trojan 
wars, &c. 



The Gods as classed by the Greeks. 



Superior Gods, called 
MeydXot. Qsoi. 



Jupiter 


Juno 


Saturn 


Aurora 


Neptune 


Ceres 


Bacchus 


Themis 


Apollo 


Diana 


iEolus 


Luna 


Mercury 


Minerva 


iEsculapius 


Nox 


Mars 


Vesta 


Helius or 


Iris 


Vulcan 


Venus 


Sol 


Hebe 






Pluto 


Tyche 






Pan 


Latona 






Plutus 


Nemesis 
Fama 



Inferior Gods, called simply Qeol, and 
sometimes Aaijxoves. 

The Mythical Be- 
ings named 
above ; Titans, 
Giants, &c. 

The Gods peculiar 
to the Greeks 
(cf. § 88), except 
such as fall into 
the class of De- 
migods. 



Demigods, called 'H^t6 



Here fall Ina- 
chus, Perseus, 
and all named 
above, under 
Heroes. 

Here also some- 
times Saturn, 
Bacchus, /Eo- 
lus, and other 
gods are put. 



The Theban Heroes 

Capaneus a 
Tydeus 
Polynices 
Thersander, &c. 

The Trojan Heroes 
are — 

Agamemnon 
Achilles 
Ulysses 
Diomedes 
Ajax, &c. 



The Gods as classed by the Romans. 



Dii Majorum Gentium. 



1. Consentes. 


2. Selecti. 


Jupiter 


Saturn 


Neptune 


Pluto 


Apollo 


Sol 


Mercury 


Janus 


Mars 


Bacchus 


Vulcan 


Genius 


Juno 


Rhea 


Ceres 


Luna 


Diana 




Minerva 




Venus 




Vesta 





Dii Minorum Gentium. 



1. Semones, 

Guardians over 
particular ob- 
jects j as 

Pan 

Plutus 
JEolus, &c. 

Here also 

Vertumnus 
Terminus, 

and most of the 
Gods peculiar 
to Ihe Romans 
(cf.§89). 
Here also the 
Mythical Be- 
ings (cf. § 88). 



2. Miscellanei, 

Personifications of 
various objects; as 

Virtus 

Fides 

Honor 

Spes 

Pietas 

Bellona 

Febris 

Mephitis 

Victoria, &c. 



3. Peregrini, 
Gods from other 
nations; as 

Mithras 

Osiris 

Isis 

Apis & Mnevis 

Sera pis 

Anubis 

Harpocrates 

Canopus, &c. 



4. Tndigetes, 
or Adscripts ; 

Hercules 

Castor 

Pollux 

iEneas 
Romulus or 
Quirinus, &c. 

Also deified Empe- 
rors, &c. 



Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed according to supposed Residence. 



Celestial. 
Jupiter Venus 



Apollo 

Mercury 

Mars 

Vulcan 

Cupid 



Vesta 
Aurora 
Iris 
Hebe 
Psyche 
Hymenals Horffi 
Juno Seasons 

Minerva Graces 
Diana Muses 

The Muses sometimes rank- 
ed with the Terrestrial. 



Terrestrial. 
Terra Pomona 



Cybele 

Ceres 1 

Saturnt 

Janus 1 

Bacchus 1 

Terminus 



Pales 

Feronia 

Pan 

Silenus 

Satyrs 

Fauns 



Vertumnus Lares 
Priapus Nymphs 
Flora Penates, &c. 

1 Ranked sometimes with the 
Celestial. 



Marine. 
Oceanus Tethys 



Neptune 
JEolus 
Proteus 
Phorcys 



Amphitrite 
Matuta 
Ino or 
Leucothoe 



Portumnus Sirens 
Nereus Nereids 
Triton Scylla 

Glaucus Charybdis 
Palsemon 
Tritons 



Infernal. 
Pluto Proser- 

Charon pine 

Minos Nemesis 
Rhada- Mors 
manthus Manes 
iEacus Nsenia 1 
Cerberus Parcae 
Nox Furies 



Goddess of Funerals. 



138 



PART III 



GREEK AND KOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



PLATE XVI. 




140 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. GrjEcia is by some supposed to have derived its name from Graicus, a 
son of Thessalus, his descendants being called Graici, rpacxoi. The Graici, 
however, were only a single tribe of the inhabitants, some of whom planted 
themselves in Italy. The country originally seems to have had no common 
name, comprehending properly all its tribes. Graecia was a name used by the 
Romans, not by the inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, 
from Hellen, a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the 
people were called by the ancient writers Achaeans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes, 
Pelasgians, and Ionians. These names of the country and the occupants, 
however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but seem to have re- 
ferred in their general application chiefly to the more important colonies or com- 
munities, which originally occupied and peopled the land. 

§ 2 1. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was bounded on 
three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which were distinguished by the 
names of iEgean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic; and on the north extended to 
the chain of mountains called Orbelus (cf. P. I. § 77) separating it from Maesia. 
Taken in this extent, it is naturally divided into four parts ; Macedonia ; Thes- 
salia and Epirus ; Hellas; and Peloponnesus (cf. P. I. § 76). Taken in a more 
limited sense, excluding Macedonia, it was sometimes divided into two parts ; 
Graecia Propria (including Thessalia and Epirus, and Hellas) ; and the Pelo- 
ponnesus. In the most limited sense, however, it included merely Hellas, 
which is perhaps usually meant by the restrictive phrase Grascia Propria. The 
name of Greeks was also applied to the inhabitants of Grecian colonies in 
Asia, in Italy, and in Africa. 

§ 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were distinguished 
for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, in Attica; Sparta or La- 
cedaemon, in Laconia ; Argos, Mycenae, and Corinth, in the territory of Argolis ; 
Thebes, in Bceotia ; Megalopolis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or 
colonial cities of the Greeks were the following ; Miletus and Ephesus in 
Ionia; Mitylene, Chios, Samos, and Rhodus, in the islands near Asia Minor; 
Byzantium on the Thracian coast; Corcyra on the island of that name; Ta- 
rentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy; Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, 
and Leontium in Sicily ; Syrene in Africa. In later times Alexandria in Egypt, 
Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as 
Grecian cities. 

§ 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course of its his- 
tory, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic ages, the several tribes 
or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subse- 
quently monarchies properly so called were established in Sicyon, Argos, Attica, 
Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedaemon, Elis, iEtolia, iEgialea, or 
Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most flourishing condition during the 
time of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — The Achaean and Etolian 
league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political constitution of the Greeks in 
Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. 

§ 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from Thrace and 
who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. IV. § 33, 34) and the Hellenes, 
lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relations or even common 
laws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, and 

141 



142 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

were exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighboring islands. 
Colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to their 
culture, which was aided by the commencement of the navigation. The famous 
Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the naviga- 
tion of this early period, occurring about eighty years before the Trojan war. 
About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted, 
in Crete, under the direction of Minos ; not with the perfection, however, 
which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him 
Theseus. The people of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, 
and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other 
regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions. 

§ 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the different 
people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest, 
particularly in reference to murders and depredations. A proof of this was 
given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injuries of Menelaus 
(committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on 
together the war against Troy. This war became a means of the further 
advancement of Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40), although it was also the 
occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus 
led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi- 
nally they became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and 
social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and 
maintaining social and civil order. 

§ 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a military charac- 
ter ; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but 
now a more monarchical form was assumed. Soon however the kings abused 
their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. 
Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very 
name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a state of 
things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. 
Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, 
the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure 
allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in 
a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), and this compact afterwards became much 
more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquillity 
and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, 
and Africa. 

§ 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedeemon enjoyed first the advantages 
of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in 
some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. 
about 820, the author of this code, had previously made himself acquainted with 
the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without intro- 
ducing any violent changes, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold 
regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new 
and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very 
severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and 
warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design 
was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in these respects a high pre-eminence 
over the other states. 

See /. K. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Erkl&rung d. Geschichte und Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800-1805. 3 Th. S. 
— Cf. references given P. V. § 7. 7(d). 

§ 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in 
culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and subsequently acquir- 
ing glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became 
more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mu- 
tual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was 
carried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens 
and Sparta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part on one 
side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure 
long after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and 



P. HI. INTRODUCTION. 143 

became the residence of refined manners, useful knowledge, and cultivated taste 
in the arts. 

Wm. Youngs Political History of Athens.— Trans, into German. Leips. 1777. S. — ithenian Letters, or the epistolary corres- 
pondence of an agent of the king of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Lond. 1799. 2 vols. 8. — Trans, into 
Germ, by F. Jacobs, Leipz. 1800.— Bulwcr, Rise and Pall of Athens.— Cf. P. V. § 7. 7 (d). 

§ 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece we are to notice more 
particularly in the Archaeology of Literature (P. IV. § 33ss. 61ss.), and here 
it is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired to render Greece 
so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly pro- 
pitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as 
well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention; 
its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty; its commercial inter- 
course, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable 
circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day 
one of the most remarkable in history, and whose works in literature and art 
are still valued as our best models. 

$11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of 
the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military, 
and domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge, 
especially as an aid in the investigation of history, language, criticism, mytho- 
logy, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at 
all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, 
that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, re- 
ligion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point 
of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is denominated their 
Antiquities is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to com- 
prehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various monu- 
ments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view. 

On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we introduce the following re- 
marks, abridged, from Rollin (as cited P. II. % 5u.)— "To a certain extent, this study 
is indispensable for all who make pretensions to education. Without it, there are 
a multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand; 
without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without 
being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily 
solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. 
There is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly con- 
ducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on 
every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be compre- 
hended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated 
taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the Romans. Juvenal 
also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that 
a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridi- 
culous questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to mis- 
apply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure and 
difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and some- 
times even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this 
danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish 
and pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior 
writers have said ; that such an occupation consumes unprofitably the time and strength 
which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications 
of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorant of certain things is by no means 
the least. 

After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities 
either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch 
of learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pursue important 
studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of the work 
should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the read- 
ing of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, little by little, which will 
afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only 
necessary to make the commencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down 
observations in order and with accuracy. 

Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven or eight 
heads: religion; political government ; war; navigation; monuments and public edi- 
fices ; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; the customs of common life, such 
as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under each of these divisions are included many 



144 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



subdivisions. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gods, priests, 
temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacri- 
fices, feasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads." 

See AT. H. Milhauser, Ueber Philologie, Alterthumswissenschaft, und Alterthumsstudium. FUr Studirende. Lps. 1837. 8. pp 88. 
— Burgess, Essay on the Study of Antiquities. Oxf. 1782. 8.— Plattner, as cited § 196. 3 u.— See also P. IV. § 29 ; and works there 



§ 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical writers, and 
especially the historians, more particularly such of them as give details of the 
whole constitution of Grecian society, the manners, customs, and modes of 
thinking and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be 
considered as sources of information on this subject, especially the epic poets, 
whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth 
for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and 
views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in 
the remaining monuments of art ; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems, 
and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more 
distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained 
from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations 
of beauty and taste. 

§ 13 u. Various modern writers have collected from these sources scattered items of 
information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gain 
a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it to the study of Greek literature. Other writers 
have investigated particular topics in a more full and extended manner. 



1. For an account of works of both kinds, see 

/. A. Fabricii Bibliographia antiquaria. (Stud, et op. P. Schaffs- 
hausen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. cap. ii. 

Nitsch's Beschreibung des, &c. which is cited below (Th. i. 
p. 35.) 

Krebs, Handbuch der philolol. Bilcherkunde (Bd. ii. p. 211). 

Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Alten. 

Meuzel's Bibliotheca Historica, vol. 3d, as cited P. V. § 240> 
enumerates the writers on Antiquities. 

2. The most important collection of particular treatises on 
Greek Antiquities is Jac. Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitatum 
Grascarum. Lug. Bat. 1697-1702. 13 vols. fol. Ven. 1732. An 
account of the contents is given in the work of Fabricius, just 
cited.— A mass of valuable matter relating to various branches of 
Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monu- 
ments, is found in Montfaucon's Antiq. Expliq. cited P. II. 
§ 12. 2 (d). An abridgment of this in German, by /. F. Roth, 
was published Nttrnb. 1807. fol. with 150 plates.— We may men- 
tion here also Caylus, Recueil des Antiquites, Par. 1767. 7 vols. 4. 
containing Egyptian and other antiquities, with engravings.— 
Also, F. A. David, Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques, et Romains. 
Par. 1787. 5 vols. 4. 

3. Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject 
are the following : 

Everh. Feitkii Antiquitatum Homericarum Libri iv. (ed. El. 
Stbber) Argent. 1743. 8. 

Fr. Rous, Attick Antiquities. 9th ed. Lond. 1685. 4. 

Jo. Phil. Pfieffer, Libri iv. Antiq!' Graecarum. Lpz. 1708. 4. 

Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Graecarum, praecipue Atticarum, Descrip" 
tio brevis (with obs. of Leisner and Zeunius). Lpz. 1787. 8. 
(Eng. trans, by Stockdale) Lond. 1772/8. 

Sig. Havercamp, Antiq. Grascarum, praecipue Atticarum, De- 
scriptio brevis. Lug. Bat. 1740. 8. 

P. F.A.Nitsch, Beschreibung des hauslichen, gottesdienstlichen, 
sittlichen, politischen, kriegerischen und wissenscliaftlichen Zu- 
standesd.Griechen,&c (fortgesetzt von Hbpfner) Erf. 1791-1800. 
3 vols. 8. with a 4th vol. by Kiiphe, Erf. 1806. Cf. Class. 
Journ. v. 10. 

P. F. A. Nitsch (same), Entwurf der Griech. Alterthttmer. 
Altenb. 1791. 8. 

L. Schaaff, Antiquitaten und Archaologie der Griechen und 
Romer. (also in his Encycl. der Class. Alterthumsk). Magdeb. 
1820. 8. 

/. Robinson, Archaeologia Graeca, or the Antiquities of 
Greece, &c Lond. 1827. 8. 



J. Potter, Archaeologia Graeca, or the Antiquities of Greece. 
Oxf. 1699. 2 vols. 8— Same work.ed. G. Dunbar. Edinb. 1820. 
— with additions and corrections by Anthon. N. York, 1825. 8. 
—with notes, maps, &c. by J. Boyd. Glasg. 1837. 12. valuable.— 
Samework in German, with additions by /. J. Rambach. Halle, 
1777-78. 3 vols. 8. 

A compendium of Grecian Antiquities by C. D. Cleveland. 
Bost. 1831. 12. 

Abriss der Griech. und Rom. AlterthUmer, von Chr. Fried. 
Haacke. Stendal, 1821. 12. (very brief). 

4. The following are not designed for manuals, but contain 
highly interesting pictures of Grecian antiquity. 

/. Jac Barthelemy, Voyage de jeune Anacharsis en Grece. ed. 
Stereot. Par. 1820. 7 vols. 12 —Engl, transl. by W. Beaumont. 
Lond. 1806. Cf. P. V. § I53.-In Germ, with notes by /. E. 
Biester. Berl. 1792. 7 vols. 8. 

/. D. Hartmann's Versuch einer Kulturgeschichte der 
vornehmsten Volkerschaften Griechenlands. Lemgo, 1796 and 
1800. 2Bde. 8. 

J. D. Lockhart, Inquiry into the Civil, Moral, and Religious 
Institutions of Athens, &c. with the Topography, and Chorogra- 
phy of Attica and Athens. Translated from the German of K. O. 
Mailer. Lond. 1842. 8. 

The Athenian Lettefs, cited § 9. 

5. The following works also may be consulted with advan- 
tage on different points : 

Waclismuth, Hellenische Alterthumskunde. Halle, 1826. 
Trans, into Engl. (Historical- Antiquities of Greece) Oxf. 1837. 
4 vols. 8. 

Hill's Essays on the Institutions of the Greeks. 

Gillies' Discourse on the Manners of the Greeks. 

W. Becker, Charicles; Bilder altgriechischer Sitten. Lpz. 1S40. 
2 vols. 8. with plates. A work illustrating the private life of the 
ancient Greeks. 

C. Hermann, Antiquitatum Laconicarum libelli iv. Marb. 
1841. 4. 

J. Malleot, Recherches sur les Moeurs, les Usages, religieux, 
civile, et militaires, des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1809. 3 vols. 4. 

H. Hase, The Public and Private Life of the ancient Greeks. 
Transl. from German. Lond. 1836. 8. 

Heeren's Politics of Anc. Greece. Transl. by G. Bancroft. 
Bost. 1824. 

C. O. MUller's History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. Tr. 
by H. Tufnel and G. C. Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 

Wm. Bruce, State of Society in the age of Homer. 



p. III. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 



145 



*2. BSckh, Staatsbaushaltung der Athener. (Translated into 
English) Public Economy of Athens. Lond. 1828. 2 vols. 8. 

Lardnerh Cabinet Encyclop. No. xlvii. and lxx. (On Arts, 
Manufactures, &c. of Greeks and Romans.) 

Rougier, V Agriculture Ancienne des Grecs. Par. 1830. 8. 

D. G. Wait, Jewish, Oriental, and Classical Antiquities ; con- 
taining illustrations of the Scriptures and Classical Records, from 
Oriental sources. Camb. 1823. 8. (cf. Home, Int. to Stud. S. 
Script, ii. p. 727). 

Rolliris Anc. Hist. bk. x. Best edition, New York, 1835. 
2 vols, large 8. 

C. F. Weber, Repertorium der classischen AUerfhumswissen- 
schaft. Lpz. 1832. 8. 



Encyclopedie Methodique, as cited P. II. § 12. 2 (c). 

P. Danet, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Lond. 
1700. 4. 

A. Pauly, Real-Encyclopldie der classischen Alterthumswis- 
senschaften. Stuttg. 1838. commenced. 

Fosbrohe, Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, Classical and Mediae- 
val. Load. 1838. 3 vols. 4. with plates.— Also Lond. 1840. 
1 vol. large 8. 

W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Lond. 
1S42. large 8. very valuable. 

6. Additional references on particular topics will be given, 
as the topics occur in the following sections. 



§ 14. The subject of antiquities cannot be treated in so strict accordance with 
chronological order as the events of history, because the sources of information 
are not sufficiently minute. But still in describing the antiquities of a people, 
one should not lose sight of the influence which political revolutions, the pro- 
gress and decline of refinement, and other circumstances, have exerted at suc- 
cessive times upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and 
social state. Most writers have not been sufficiently mindful of this, and have 
also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of the Grecian states, 
viz. Athens, and so have described Attic, rather than Grecian antiquities. In 
order to avoid this double fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the ear- 
lier and less cultivated times will be distinguished from those of a later and 
more enlightened period ; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was 
then the most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitution 
and peculiarities of the other principal states. 



I. — Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages. 

§ 15. It has been already suggested (§ 5, §10), that Greece advanced with 
very rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness in manners and morals to the 
highest degree of refinement. The history of this progress may be divided 
into three distinct periods. The first extends from the original state of barba- 
rism to the time of the Trojan war ; this was the period of the peopling of 
Greece : the second extends from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the 
period of the rise and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs : the 
third extends from the age of Solon, to the time when the Greeks lost their 
liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (cf. P. V. § 9), the period of their 
greatest perfection and glory. 

Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more particu- 
larly to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods ; and the subject 
will be considered in four general branches, viz. religious, civil, military, and 
domestic affairs. 

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 



§ 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the Greeks, their 
religion had no fixed or steady form : yet a great part of the popular belief 
originated in these times, which on this account have been called the mythical 
ages or fabulous period. The formation of this early popular faith was aided 
by the general ignorance, the predominance of sensual ideas, and the natural 
tendencies of the mind in an uncultivated state of society (P. II. § 5w). With 
the progress of social and moral culture, the traditions : and fables grew into a 
sort of system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented 
and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology. 

According to common accounts, Greece received new and better religious 
notions from Thrace, by Orpheus, B. C. about 1250 (cf. P. V. § 12, § 48). 
19 N 



146 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian origin. The worship of animals the 
Greeks never adopted ; but they embraced in common with most of the ancient 
nations, the worship of the stars, that early form of idolatry. They also prac- 
ticed the custom of deifying and worshiping men (P. II. § 118), who were 
styled heroes, having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries, 
establishing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits. 

On the religious affairs of Greece, we may refer to /. G. Lakcmachcr, Antiquitates Grascorum sacra?. Helmst. 1744. S.—C/ir. 
Brttningii, Compendium Antiq. Graec. e profanis sacrarum. Francof. 1758. $.—Mitford, Hist. Graec. ch. ii. sect. 1. — Foucher, sur 
la religion des Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vols, xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxviii. and xxxix.— Ant. Van Dale, Diss, de Origine 
ac Progressu Idolatries et Superstitionum. Amst. 1696. 4. 

§ 17 u. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks was the business of 
their wise men, lawgivers, and poets, who were mostly at the same time priests. The 
matter of these was confined chiefly to the dogmas and narratives of Theogony and 
Cosmogony, which were of a mixed character, fabulous and allegorical, but based upon 
some real appearances in nature and man. The various operations of the powers of 
nature and the movements of human passions, were the principal foundation of the 
tales and doctrines of the mythology. ' The origin of things, their vicissitudes and trans- 
formations, their nature, tendency and effects, were the subjects ; and these were, by 
a lively fancy, changed into supposed or imaginary persons, to whom words, actions, 
and appropriate attributes were ascribed. The regular combination or assemblage of 
these in order was called the Theogony, or account of the' origin and descent of the 
gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, which one of the most ancient of 
the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular form in his poem styled the The- 
ogony, and all the principal elements of which Homer interwove in his two epic poems, 
the Illiad and Odyssey. (Cf. P. V. § 50, § 51.) 

§ 18 u. In the first ages the wise men, and especially the poets, made great exertions 
to imbue the minds of the people with reverence for the gods and respect for their wor- 
ship. On public solemnities, and in great assemblies of the people, they were ac- 
customed to adapt their songs to this object. Even when the subject of these songs 
was not the history of the gods, nor any point of direct religious instruction, they were 
opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apollo, or some inspiring deity. In this way they fixed 
and strengthened a prevailing faith in the power and providence of the gods, and 
formed the first ideas of right, virtue, and morality, and of future rewards and punish- 
ments. The songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and subject of 
the instruction of the young. Hence arose on the one hand the great influence of their 
poetry on the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the other hand the great admiration 
in which the early poets were generally held. 

§ 19 u. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their names, rank, history, 
attributes, and mode of worship, we refer to the portion of this work which treats of 
Mythology (P. II). Here we only remark, that the number of the Grecian gods con- 
stantly increased with the progress of time, yet the highest and most distinguished of 
them were introduced and honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly in the class of 
heroes or demigods that this augmentation took place, after the lapse of the heroic 
ages, and by means of oral traditions. The more extensive the services of these heroes 
were while living, the more general was the reverence for them after death, while 
those, whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particular city or tribe, 
were deified chiefly by the same, and received a less, general homage and worship. 

§ 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the gods in these 
early ages, we're in part, fields and grounds, whose produce was devoted to 
uses connected with religious worship ; partly groves and particular trees, the 
former being commonly planted in a circular form ; and partly, at length, tem- 
ples, which were viewed as the seats and habitations of their respective gods. 
The temples were usually in the cities near the market or place of public busi- 
ness, although they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the conse- 
crated groves. The ground, on which they stood, was usually elevated either 
by nature or art, and their entrance or front was commonly towards the east. 
Some of them were dedicated to a single deity, others to several. It was not 
uncommon to place the name of the god, to whom the temple was sacred, in a 
brief inscription over the entrance. 

§ 21. Originally the interior of the temple was entirely vacant, after the 
Egyptian manner, even without the image or statue of its god. And in the 
earliest times the image of a god (cf. P. IV. § 156. 2) was nothing but a mere 
stone, which served to represent the deity, and to which offerings were brought. 
This was the primary origin of altars. By degrees, these stones came to be 
formed into a human shape, after which it was more common to place statues 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 147 

(dyatyiata) of the gods in their temples. The posture was sometimes stand- 
ing, sometimes sitting. The material, at first employed, was of no great value, 
being stone, wood, or clay. There were, however, in the heroic ages, images 
of the gods of a more costly substance, such as ivory, brass, silver or gold, 
although Homer never exactly describes the material. 

§ 22. The care of the temples and holy things was intrusted to the priests 
and priestesses. The number of these varied in different cases, and depended 
generally upon the rank of the deity, on whose temple and worship they 
attended. The marriage state was not forbidden them, although it became 
afterwards customary to take priestesses mostly from persons unmarried, who 
either were obliged to perpetual celibacy, or remained priestesses only until 
marriage. In some instances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it 
was adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was usu- 
ally near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the limits of the 
latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered to the gods, and 
were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office was highly honored in 
the early ages of Greece, and was held, in part at least, by the noblest and 
most distinguished personages, sometimes even by kings. 

§ 23. Some of the principal rites and solemnities pertaining to the religious 
worship must here be mentioned. Among these were lustrations (xa^ap/xot, 
dyrttfjitot,'), which consisted in the ablution of the body, and a certain purification 
of the clothes, and of sacred utensils. For this purpose salt water was used, 
which was taken from the sea, or prepared by a solution of salt in common 
water. Sulphur and fire were also used on these occasions. These purifica- 
tions were considered as especially necessary for those who were defiled by 
murder and blood, and even for the places where such crimes had happened. 
They were often ordered for the propitiation of offended deities. 

§ 24. But prayers and sacrifices were the most essential parts of Grecian 
worship. The former were put up, especially, when some important enterprise 
or undertaking was commenced ; the object of the prayer being to secure a 
happy issue, in case of which very rich gifts were promised to the gods by the 
supplicant. Both prayers and vows were termed fu^at. In making them, the 
eyes and hands were raised towards the heavens, or in the temples directed 
towards the images. The posture was sometimes standing, sometimes kneel- 
ing (youva^fO^ou, yovvrtitdv) ; the latter was used especially in case of earnest 
desire or peculiar distress, and often by the whole assembly in common. 

1. Supplicants usually had garlands on their heads and necks, and green boughs of 
olive or laurel (SaXAol or k\6l6oi Itcrripioi) in their hands. In the boughs wool was placed 
without tying, and they were hence called sometimes orf///*ara. With these boughs the 
supplicants touched the knees, sometimes the cheek, of the statue of the god addressed 
in their prayers. 

2 u. With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink offerings, cnrovSai, 
called also \oi(Sai, xo.ii. These consisted generally of wine, part of which was poured 
out in honor of the gods, and part of it drunk by the worshiper. The wine must be 
pure (aucpcLrov), and offered in a full cup. Sometimes there were libations of water 

(vSpwrnovtia) , of honey (iieXioTrovda) , of milk (yaXaicroairovda.) , and of oil (i:\a16cr7rov6a). 

In Plate XX. we have the representation of a priestess in the act of pouring out the libation ; 
in this instance the liquid is poured upon the flame kindled on the altar; also in Plate XXVII. 
fig. C. which is taken from Moses, Antique Vases. 

§ 25. The sacrifices, ^uojmm, originally consisted merely of incense, £vo$, or 
some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron wood, or the like. In very 
early times, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, unprepared state, were offered; 
and subsequently, cakes, ov\ai, baked of coarse barley, or meal mixed with, 
salt. It was not until a somewhat later period, that the slaughter of living 
victims was introduced. These victims were selected with great care. At 
first, bullocks, sheep, goats, and swine, were chiefly taken for the purpose. 
Afterwards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropriate to 
particular gods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, sometimes several 
at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, and often also of differ- 
ent kinds. The hecatomb (Ijecwo/tjSi?) properly consisted of a hundred bullocks 



• 



148 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

or oxen ; yet neither the number nor kind of animals was very precisely re- 
garded. 

The origin of sacrifices is an interesting and important theme. Some flippant and superficial 
writers ascribe them wholly to mere superstition and priestcraft. Others attempt in a more 
serious manner to explain their existence by human origin. Several theories have been pro- 
posed; one is, that they were at first gifts, a natural expedient for procuring the favor of the 
gods ; another, that they were federal rites, drawn from men's eating and drinking together in 
token of friendship, and hence the sacrificial banquet (cf. $27); a third, advanced by Warburton 
(in his Divine Legation of Moses), is that they were symbolical actions, expressive of gratitude 
in some offerings, and in others, of the acknowledgment of sin and contrition through the death 
of an animal representing the death deserved by the worshiper. But a fourth account, which 
refers them to a divine institution, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents the Hebrew sacri- 
fices as typical of the death of Christ as the great atoning sacrifice for sinners. (Cf. Ep. to JJeb. 
ix. and x.) On supposition that God, when he promised a Redeemer to Adam, instituted some 
memorial and type, in an animal sacrifice, it is easy to see how by tradition the practice of offering 
sacrifices should be universal. — The subject is well discussed by W. Magee, Dissertations on the 
Scriptural Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice. N. York, 1813. 8.— Cf. A. A. Sykes, Essay on the 
Sacrifices. Lond. 1748. 8. 

§ 26. The altars (^to^oc.), on which the sacrifices were presented, were erected 
not only in the temples, but often in open places, as on the banks of rivers, 
on mountains, in groves, and the like. 

The altar seems to have preceded the temple ; and, in the opinion of some, gave rise 
to the temple, as suggested in the following passage. 

"Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention occurs of a temple in Greece, except in the 
second book, evidently incidental, and the interpolation of some vainly patriotic Athenian rhap- 
sodist. The passage indeed might be condemned on the grounds of philological discussion, but 
it contradicts both the history of art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of 
Minerva appears to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was inclosed, and probably, in 
Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During the age of Homer, then, the primeval 
altar, common to both Europe and Asia, was the only sacred edifice known. This differed little 
from a common hearth ; the sacrifice being in fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to 
heaven, and the food of man, was prepared by roasting; the first improvement on their simple 
construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an obvious means of cleanliness 
and comfort. Yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction not common, since, in par- 
ticular instances, the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in order 
to mark in a more conspicuous manner, and with more dignity, the sacred spot, while the rites 
should be equally exposed to the spectators, an open colonnade was added, inclosing the altar 
and pavement. Thus the roofless temple might be said to be finished; but whether this prime- 
val structure existed in his native country during the age of Homer does not appear. We 
remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in Greece and 
the Druidical temple of the more northern regions. In fact, the astonishing remains at Stone- 
henge present the best known, and perhaps one of the most stupendous examples ever erected 
of the open temple. This species of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with 
the spread of the human race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion 
of the globe."— Memes, Hist, of Sculpture, &c. p. 225, as cited P. IV. $ 169. 

§ 27. Among the ceremonies connected with offering a sacrifice, was the pre- 
vious washing of the hands (§ 67. 2) and the sprinkling, by the priests, of those 
who were present, with sacred water {xh Vi ^)- Then was placed upon the 
back and head of the victim, in early times, unground barley, in later times, a 
number of small cakes (rtoTtam, dv'koxvta), often meal mixed with honey, wine, 
or oil; a little hair torn from the forehead of the victim was then thrown upon 
the fire ; next followed the prayer and libation (§ 24. 2) ; then the priest, or the 
x?jpv%, smote the animal on the head with an ax or club, and cut its throat with 
a sacrificial knife (o^oyi^). The blood was received in an appropriate vessel 
(Gfyaysiov). The victim was then flayed and cut in pieces. The next thing 
was to cover the haunches or thighs (^pot) with caul or fat (jeWtfo^), and to 
take small pieces from other parts of the animal and place upon them (w^o^s-my). 
Upon the portions thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they were 
then placed on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim was usually 
roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this kind 
were made especially on the sacred festivals. 

§ 28. Besides the sacrifices properly so called, it was common to bring to 
the gods other gifts and offerings (dwpa, oW^ua-r'a). Among these, were 
crowns or garlands (<3tt<pavo$, 6tz$o{), with which the temples, altars, and sta- 
tues were often adorned, and which were formed of the leaf sacred to the par- 
ticular god to whom they were offered : e. g. of ivy, for Bacchus ; of oak, for 
Jupiter. Curtains and vestments (rttptTtsT'dafia'ta, ^poi^/mTu) wrought with 
rich embroidery were brought and placed upon the statues or hung in the tern- 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 149 

pies. Vessels of gold, silver, and brass were also offered, and tripods (r'ptrtoSf j) 
especially to Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, dxpo^tVta, 
with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated to the gods were 
marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and circumstances of their dedica- 
tion. From the custom here described, arose the great riches of some of the 
Grecian temples. 

The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years pos- 
sessed of immense wealth. 

See Mitfard's Hist. Greece, ch. xxxvii. sect. 1 ; ch. xxxviii. sect. 1 ; ch. xxxix. sect. 5.— Bancroft's Heeren, p. 201, as cited P. V. 
§ 7. 8.— De Valois, Les rkhesses du temple de Delphes, in the Mem. Acad. Inter. iiL 78. 

§ 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a worship of 
the heroes as demigods (§ 16), which however was neither so general nor 
attended with so much ceremony. These had no festivals, properly speaking, 
but an annual funeral solemnity (ivdyia/xa), and were viewed as tutelary guar- 
dians of their country, tribe, or family. On these solemnities, the drink offer- 
ings (%odi) were in common practice ; not only wine was used for the purpose, 
but often milk, and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various 
offerings presented, and from these a trophy (tportdiov) or a funeral pile, was 
constructed. In some cases, the first fruits of the season were offered. The 
usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of the hero, in whose memory 
they were held, near which it was customary to erect an altar ; often also to 
make a pit or hole (j3d^poj, "kdxxoc), which had reference to their dwelling in 
the under world. (Cf. P. II. § 32.) 

§ 30. Funeral solemnities were generally a part of the religious usages of the 
more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately on the death of an indi- 
vidual, in the formal closing of his eyes (ovyx'keUtv ?ovs 6^a^ ( uorj), a ceremony 
usually performed by the nearest kinsman. The corpse was then washed and 
anointed, clothed in a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier (ai xtpov^ 
yepsifpov). Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the 
funeral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed for 
the occasion, and accompanied by mournful notes of the flute. The mourners 
also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, and casting it upon the 
corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not always the same length of 
time, sometimes three, sometimes seven days, and often a greater number. 

§ 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the Greeks, as 
the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. In the earliest times 
interring was practiced by the Greeks, although Homer speaks only of 
burning. 

1 u. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was borne on 
a bed or bier to the appointed place, where a funeral pile (-rrvpa) was erected. Near 
this, funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed various objects, which 
had been particularly valued by the deceased, even animals, and sometimes human, 
beings previously put to death. During the burning, the attendants uttered their wait- 
ings and funeral chants. The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some 
liquid, and the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, and 
deposited in an urn, which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was 
marked by stones and a mound (x&na), on which was commonly raised a pillar (or/jXr?), 
or other monument, with an inscription. The ceremonies were ended with a funeral 
repast {veKpokimov , ircpiknrvop). Sometimes games were celebrated in honor of the 
deceased. 

2. It is stated, that among the Titrations wives were burned on the funeral piles cf 
their husbands ; a custom which is still prevalent in India, although the influence of 
Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the country subject to England. 

§ 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we should notice 
their regard to oracles and to divinations. The most ancient of the oracles was 
that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still more celebrated, and also of early 
origin. The practice of divination and the interpreting of signs was a business 
of the priests in particular. It was done partly by observing accidental 
occurrences, as the flight of birds, or the breaking of thunder, in both of which 
the right side indicated good fortune, the observer having his face directed to the 
north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing; was re« 

n2 



150 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

garded as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the prophetic inter- 
pretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in magic, and in bodily 
metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford various means of aid and pro- 
tection. 

The religious festivals were numerous and attended with various ceremonies. 
— But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we shall speak more 
particularly again. (Cf. §§ 70-77.) 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 33. It has been already remarked (§ 5), that the first inhabitants of Greece 
lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any social compact. The 
family relations, the authority of the parent over the child, of the husband over 
the wife, exhibited the only traces of government. Phoroneus, a son of Inachus, 
is mentioned as the first author of association for civil purposes. Gradually 
the Greek tribes began to select leaders, who were called kings (JSuacki-ii), 
however limited might be the extent of their dominion or authority. The choice 
most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or country some 
distinguished and meritorious service ; and then the dignity became hereditary, 
a thing rather rare, however, in the earlier ages. Sometimes the choice was 
determined by consulting an oracle, and in such case the authority was viewed 
as the more rightful, and as sanctioned by the gods. 

On the subject of the civil affairs of the early Greeks, we may refer to F. W. Tittmanri's Darstellung der griechisch. Staatsverfas- 
sungen. Leipz. 1822. 8.—Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 2 ; ch. iv. sect. 4.— See § 92. 

§ 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being despotic, or 
unlimited; the leaders and princes being bound by certain laws and usages. 
The principal duties of these chiefs were to command in war, to settle disputes 
between the people, and to take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love 
of justice, and zeal for religion, were therefore reckoned among their most im- 
portant excellences. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was 
assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended themselves. Certain 
taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in time of war. 
The signs of their office were the scepter and diadem. The former (ctxyJTt'tpov) 
was usually of wood, and in length not unlike the lance ; the latter (8id8yj/xa) 
was a sort of bandeau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general 
costume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of 
a purple color. 

In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was something attached 
to the head ; a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic crown was common. 
David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious stones, of the weight (meaning 
probably of the value) of a talent (1 Sam. xii. 30). Athenseus mentions a crown, made 
of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy. 

In our Plate XVI. fig. C, we have a curious golden crown, which is said to have been found 
in some part of Ireland, in 1692, about ten feet under ground. Near it in the Plate, fig. a, is an an- 
cient Abyssinian crown ; on the other side, fig. 6, is the covering seen on the head of a conquered 
prince or general upon Egyptian monuments.— In Plate XXIV. fig. 6, we have the fillet and horn 
worn by governors of provinces in Abyssinia. "A large broad fillet," says Bruce, "was bound 
upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the middle of this was a conical piece of silver 
about four inches long. It is called kirn or horn, and is worn especially in parades after victo- 
ries."— Bruce, Travels, &c. as cited P. IV. $ 118. 1. 

§ 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple and unimpos- 
ing. In war, they usually had by their side a friend, who served as a kind of 
armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, they employed heralds (xripvxes) in the 
publication and execution of their orders. The heralds also imposed silence, 
when the chiefs wished to come forward and speak in an assembly. The same 
officers assisted in religious ceremonies, and were present in the forming of 
treaties. — The kings also selected councillors, of the most distinguished, ex- 
perienced, and brave of the people ; and in cases of doubt or difficulty, held 
with them consultations and formal assemblies, in which the speaker was 
accustomed to stand and the rest to sit. Both public and private affairs were 
discussed in these assemblies. 

§ 36. The courts of justice were in public places ; and the whole assembly 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 151 

usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat upon seats or benches 
of stone ; the men selected for the office were such as were much respected on 
account of age and experience. They bore in their hand a scepter or staff. 
The cause was stated orally by the contending parties themselves, and by them 
the witnesses were brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in these 
judicial assemblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, equity 
and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions ; but afterwards, the 
courts had for their guide particular laws and statutes, which were first intro- 
duced by Phoroneus, and more extensively by Cecrops. 

§ 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, so were 
the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. Murder was commonly 
punished by banishment, either voluntarily sought by the murderer, or expressly 
decreed by public sentence; its duration, however, was but a year, and even 
this could sometimes be commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum be- 
longed only to the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was 
punished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very fre- 
quent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not considered as cri- 
minal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, especially if shrewdness 
and cunning were united with the theft. Nothing therefore was aimed at but 
to recover what had been taken, or to inflict vengeance by a corresponding in- 
jury. Afterwards, however, particular punishments were imposed for these 
offences. 

§ 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Crete were connected with the Greeks 
by their having a common language, it is important to mention the Cretan laws, 
which were introduced by Minos. They are said to have been the most ancient 
written code, and were afterwards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military 
valor and union among the people seems to have been their great aim ; every 
ordinance of Minos was directed to promote strength of body, and to cultivate 
social attachment between the members of the state. In order to impart greater 
dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them forward as having been re- 
vealed to him by Jupiter. But the moral culture was not greatly advanced by 
institutions having their primary and chief reference to a state of war. 

§ 39. In the .progress of time, the form of government among the Greeks 
underwent many changes, and at length became wholly democratic. The most 
celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. Of these in particular a few 
important circumstances respecting their government in the more early ages are 
here to be mentioned. 

Athens was originally governed by kings. The power of these kings was 
more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death of Codrus (1068 B.C.), 
it became a free state. The chief authority was given to officers styled 
Archons, who ruled for life. Thirteen archons of this description succeeded 
each other, all descended from the family of Codrus. After the time of these 
(752 B. C), the office of Archon ceased to be for life, and was limited to ten 
years, and was held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven 
Archons of this kind, the office was made annual (684 B. C), and nine Archons 
were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the same rank. — The civil 
government experienced changes under Draco, and others still greater under 
the distinguished legislator Solon, and in after times. 

§ 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Euristhenes and Pro- 
cles, the two sons of Aristodemus (one of the Heraclidae that invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus), reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under their descendants the 
kingly office lost much of its authority. Lycurgus, the famous Spartan law- 
giver, changed greatly the form of government ; it did not become democratical, 
neither was it, properly speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the 
head, and a senate was established consisting of twenty-eight men, who were 
above sixty years of age. There was also the body of five Ephori, appointed 
annually. The people themselves likewise had some share in the administra- 
tion of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions and disturbances, 
this state enjoyed a long period of comparative rest and liberty. This it owed 



152 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

very much to the wise regulations of Lycurgus, the salutary influence of which 
was aided by the limited territory and moderate population of Lacedaemon. 

§ 41. One of the most effectual means of advancing the Greeks was their 
commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the earliest times, com- 
merce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal exchanges of native products, 
the use of gold not being introduced. Afterwards pieces of metal of different 
values were employed. (Cf. P. IV. § 94.) Navigation became more common 
after the Trojan war, and iEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. 
Corinth and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The commerce 
of Athens finally became something considerable; that of Lacedaemon on the 
other hand always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is 
worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime intercourse 
had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian 
states. (Cf. P. IV. § 40.) 

A. Anderson, Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the earliest accounts ; with Appendix by 
Coombe. Dubl. 1790. 6 vols. 8. 

" Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the hands of 
the Phenicians. The carrying-trade of the Mediterranean was early theirs, and Sidon 
was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without traffic carried on 
by sea among themselves ; but the profession of merchant had evidently not in Homer's 
time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early 
period in Greece. While it was thought not unbecoming a prince to be a carpenter to 
supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean 
employment ; a pirate was a more respected character. 

Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open vessels, 
nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no hint of 
any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece, 
are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale which oceans require, and 
which modern times have produced. Broken by innumerable headlands and islands, 
with coasts mostly mountainous, and in some parts of extraordinary height, the Gre- 
cian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united cir- 
cumstances, which have made the Greeks of all ages excellent boatmen, have contri- 
buted much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of the 
pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted ; the science of the 
navigator is of little avail ; even the compass is comparatively useless in the iEgean. 
The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated 
by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English 
alone, accustomed in all their surrounding waters to a bolder navigation, commonly 
venture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in 
Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's de- 
pendence was his oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet 
so tempestuous, the greatest danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which 
with their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms, 
and, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an open beach, 
were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The Phenicians, for their com- 
merce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more open seas and longer voyages." 
Mitford. 

III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

§ 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of the greatest 
merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. The first inhabitants 
were distinguished for their warlike inclinations and habits of life, although 
their wars were conducted without much method or discipline. They were 
constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves and their property, but to 
attack and plunder others. Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and de-< 
vastation in the extreme. It needed but a trifling occasion to excite a general, 
long, and bloody war; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking example. In 
such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces, 
united as in a common cause. 

On Grecian military affairs, see I. T. H. Nast, Einleitung in die griechischen Kriegsalterthumer. Stuttg. 1780. 8. a valuable 
work on the general subject.— Also, G. G. S. Kophe, uber das Kriegsweisen der Griechen im heroischen Zeitalter, &c. Berl. 1807. 8. 
cf. Class. Journ. ix. II.— C. Guiscard, Memoires militaires sur les Grecs et sur les Romains. La Haye, 1758. 4. It contains a 
translation of Onosander (cf. P. V. § 221), and plans of some ancient battles, &c. Cf. § 215.— Gamier, as cited § 136.— Mitford's 
Hist. ch. ii. sect. 3, 4. 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE EARLIER AGES. 153 

§ 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of foot-soldiers and in later times 
of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were 
distinguished as light armed (^aot) and heavy armed (ort^tVat). The Thessa- 
lians were early and especially celebrated for their cavalry (lrt7tsZ$). Still more 
ancient was the use of war-chariots, which were employed by the heroes of 
Homer. Two horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots ; each 
contained two warriors, one of whom guided the horses (^io^oj), while the 
other pointed out the direction (rtap<uj3ar?7s), discharged arrows, hurled missiles 
from a sling, or fought with short arms, and- when the action was close sprang 
from the chariot (&4po$). Notwithstanding the inconvenience of these vehicles 
in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalry came to be generally 
substituted in their place. 

In the Sup. Plate 10 is seen a war chariot with three horses and two persons; Bellona acting 
as charioteer, while Mars is hurling the javelin, 

§ 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, defensive and 
offensive. Among the former (a%£^tr t pta, 7tpoj5%7i/nata) was the helmet (xvvivj, 
xpdvo$, Ttspix^aTiata, xopvi) made of hide or leather and adorned with a crest 
of hair or tufts of feathers (<j>cao?, a.d<j>os), and attached to the neck by a strap 
(dzivi) ; the breastplate (£-topa|), commonly made of brass, sometimes of 
leather or linen; the girdle (£\ovi?), mostly of brass and encircling the lower 
part of the body ; the greaves (xj^tgfj), of brass or some more precious metal ; 
and the shield (acirtis), usually round, made of bullock's hide, and used for the 
protection of the whole body (cf. § 139). 

1 u. The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as much so as Hesiod repre- 
sents the shield of Hercules to have been, and Homer that of Achilles. 

2. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (II. xviii.478) is considered as one of the finest 
passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield was formed by the celebrated artist 
Flaxman, and several casts were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster. He brought the whole 
work within a circle of three feet in diameter. It contains upwards of a hundred human figures 
exhibited in relief. 

Cf. Feltori's Iliad, Notes. — See Quatr. de Quincy, Sur la description du bouclier d'Achille, &c. in the Mem. VInst. de Franco 
Classe i'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 102, with a colored plate.— De Caylus, Boucliers d'Achille, d'Hercule, et d'Enee, &c. in 
the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvii. 21.— Class. Journ. vi. 6; viii. 409. 

§ 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (Sopu), commonly made of the 
ash-tree (fie^rj), and of different lengths and form* according as it was designed 
for combat more or less close; the sword (|<4>os), the belt of which hung from 
the shoulders; the bow (noiov), usually of wood, with a string (vsvpov) of 
twisted horse-hair or of hide ; the arrows (jSi?^, oto-tfa), of light-wood, pointed 
with iron, and winged (rtT'spdftj ios) with feathers ; the javelin (axcov, axovtoov), 
of various lengths and forms ; and the sling (atysvSovrj), of an oval shape, with 
two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which arrows, stones, 
and leaden balls ([xo-kvfiSwcu) were hurled against the foe. 

The spear used for close combat was called 66pv dpsxTdv; that for a distance, ndXrdp; 
the point, termed dixp-h and ckw/07, was always of metal. Aovpoboxn was the name given to 
the box or case, in which the spears were deposited when not in use. — The term sfx°s also 
designates the spear ; the epithet brazen (xaXxeou) is usually applied to it. Cf. Horn. II. 

iii. 3S0. The arrows were kept in a quiver ((papfrpa), which, with the bow, was usually 

carried on the back of the shoulders (ct wpLomv). The quiver had a lid or cover (-^a). 
Cf. Horn. II. iv. 116-120. 

Various articles of ancient armor are seen in our Plates XVII. and XXII. The bow and quiver 
are given in fig. T, and L, of Plate XVII. In this Plate also, fig. Y, Y, we have forms of the 
Grecian javelin ; in O, O, spear-heads ; in the figs, a, a, the long spear ; in H, a form of the clubs 
(cf. $ 139) which in various forms were used in early periods; in fig. A, A, are given forms of 
the club or battle-mallet used by the Egyptians, which sometimes had leaden heads with handles 
four or five feet long ; in fig. I, I, we have the Grecian battle-ax; in fig. S, and in the several 
figs, marked C, and those marked D, are forms of the Grecian and Roman sicord; in E, aDacian 
sword ; in those marked B, Persian swords.— In Plate XXII. fig. a, b, c, d, and e, are varieties 
of helmets found in Egyptian remains: /, g, h, and ?', are Persian and Syrian helmets; the 
kings are sometimes represented with crowns of a similar appearance : n, and o, are given as 
Phrygian : I, m, are Grecian, and may represent also the Roman : p, and 7, are Dacian : k, is a 
form quite similar to the latter, said to be used also by the Syrians. In fig. r, and on the Gre- 
cian warriors, fig. 1, and fig. 7, the thorax is seen, and the girdle: s, represents a figure found 
(cf. Stone's Life of Brant, vol. ii. p. 55, Appendix) buried in a sitting posture, near the celebrated 
Dighton Rock, in Massachusetts, with a concave breastplate thirteen inches long, supposed to 
be of cast brass, and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide, having a reed-like 
appearance ; a brazen arrow-head, I, was found with it. In fig. u, and on the warrior, fig. 7, we 

20 



154 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

see the greaves ; the shield, in fig. 1, 3, 7; the spear in the hands of the Grecian warriors, in fig. 
1, 2; and of the Persian, fig. 3: the bow, &c. in fig. 6, which represents an Egyptian archer. 

§ 46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of brass or 
copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron (cf. P. IV. § 10), and 
was often used after the introduction of iron. For defensive armor, iron was 
afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or breastplate, the greaves and 
the shield, tin or lead was sometimes used. To adorn the weapons with gold 
was considered as too extravagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to 
give their armor the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of 
beauty, but to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of 
field-badge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god, 
or animal, especially the lion. The horses also were ornamented with much 
care. 

Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the Lacedae- 
monians to clothe their soldiers in scarlet. — The Greek soldiers usually carried their 
own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, onions, &c. For this 
purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker with a long neck, called yv\iov. Robin- 
son, p. 349. 

§ 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice the use of 
ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed partly in piracy, 
partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual combat. In later times the 
naval battles of the Greeks were frequent and celebrated. Their first ships 
were long (/xaxpcu), and moved by oars. The number of rowers was various, 
often very considerable. Originally there was but a single rank on each side ; 
afterwards, as the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added ; 
vessels of the latter kind were called 8i,xpota, those of the former /xovoxpota, 
also /.topjjpttff, x&qtss. At a later period they were built with three tiers or ranks, 
tfpnypstj, which continued to be the most common form, although there were 
vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and sometimes even more. 

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and signs, from 
which they were named. The ship commonly bore the image or statue of some 
god, to whose protection it was especially intrusted. In the capture of a vessel, 
the first object of a victor was to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy 
in his own ship. 

§ 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular camps. 
Their compass and extent were such as not only to include the whole army, 
but also the ships, which after the landing of the troops were drawn upon the 
dry land. It was customary to surround the camp with a wall or ramparts with 
towers and breast-works. Before the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with 
pointed stakes. For the principal officers separate tents were erected, of 
wooden frames, covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed 
on guard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out from 
both parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other. 

" Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, on 
desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept with no shelter but 
their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a blanket ; when they remained 
long on a spot they hutted. Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir, and thatched with 
reeds; and it seems to have had several apartments. (II. xxiv. 488. ix. 659)." 
M if ford. 

§ 49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in front, and. 
the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and support them by the 
chariots from behind. The whole army was drawn into close array, although 
arranged, in distinct divisions. On the commencement of battle they implored 
the aid of the gods, and made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals 
exhorted the soldiers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset 
was usually accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other 
and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having nursing 
and medicine ; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, or their corpses 
even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed upon in some express 
stipulation. 

§ 50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which the captor 



PLATE X V T T . 




156 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, and partly in other 
utensils and precious articles, which, together with their owners, became the 
property of the victor. By means of a ransom, however, the spoils, as well as 
the prisoners, could be redeemed. After battle, the remaining booty was often 
divided among the soldiers by lot; the general, however, always received his 
portion first and without lot. Those who had distinguished themselves by valor, 
also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often 
stimulated their troops before the action. 

" We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considerably 
upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, who yet have 
prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. Several terms used 
by the poet, together with his description of marches, indicate that orders of battle 
were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. Steadiness in the soldier, that 
foundation of all those powers which distinguish an army from a mob, and which to 
this day forms the highest praise of the best troops, we find in great perfection in the 
Iliad. ' The Grecian phalanges,' says the poet (iv. 427), ' marched in close order, the 
leaders directing each his own band. The rest were mute : insomuch that you would say, 
in so great a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they 
respectively watched for the word of command from their officers.' 

Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been very well 
armed, both for offence and defence. Their defensive armor consisted of a helmet, a 
breastplate, and greaves, all of brass ; and a shield, commonly of bull's hide, but often 
strengthened with brass. The breastplate appears to have met the belt, which was a 
considerable defence to the belly and groin ; and with an appendant skirt guarded also 
the thighs. All together covered the forepart of the soldier from the throat to the ancle ; 
and the shield was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian 
troops were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep. 
Any body, formed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a specific num- 
ber of either ranks or files, were generally termed a phalanx (II. iv. 332. vi. 83). But 
the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed ; bows were their principal 
weapons, and they never engaged in close fight (dyx^ax o 0' 

Riding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appears to have been not un- 
known (II. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was generally applied 
in Greece to military purposes ; the mountainous ruggedness of the country prevented 
any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thessalians, whose territory was a 
large plain. [Cf. Sallier, cited § 138.] But in the Homeric armies no chief was with- 
out his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses; and these chariots 
of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action, 
composes the first line of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the in- 
fantry in which he has least confidence ; and then forms a third line, or reserve, of the 
most approved troops. 

_ The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage 
singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader with an appear- 
ance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the use of fire-arms that 
practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at the greatest perfection. Caesar 
himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43), with evident satisfaction, a very particular account 
of a remarkable advanced combat, in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions 
of his army engaged. The Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times 
of chivalry, had armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers ; and this, 
with the additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid 
unbounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first, 
consideration it may appear." — Mil ford, ch. ii. sect. 3. 

"Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defensible, but 
on the contrary marks great barbarism ; that of stopping in the heat of action to strip 
the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil of the enemy superseded 
all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects. of battle. The 
poet himself (II. v. 48, vi. 67) was not unaware of the danger and inconvenience of the 
practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in 
Homer's warfare, a remarkable mixture of barbarism with regularity. Though the 
art of forming an army in phalanx was known and commonly practiced, yet the busi- 
ness of a general, in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it. 
fashion, of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill 
in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252), excel only 
in the character of fighting soldiers : as generals and directors of the war they are 
inferior to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so much on the skir- 
mishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which set the 
able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obviously means to 
expose the absurdity and mischievous consequences of that prejudice, where he makes 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 157 

Hector (II. xxii. 99), in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polyda- 
mas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very 
extensive and very accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of his 
own age, was still very imperfect." — lb. 

§ 51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted wholly to the 
dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made upon certain con- 
ditions. This was effected through legates, fully commissioned for the purpose. 
In forming a treaty of peace, various ceremonies were observed, partly of a 
religious character. A victim was slain, of which however no meal was made, 
but its flesh was cast aside; libations were poured out; the parties joined 
hands in pledge of good faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their 
covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose 
thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjured. The restoration of plun- 
der was generally a preliminary requisition ; and the conquered party was often 
compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnification. — Sometimes the 
whole war was terminated by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by 
its issue. 

IV. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

§ 52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it is not to be 
expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refinement in what pertains 
to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages their mode of living was nearly as 
rude as their morals. Their principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, 
goats, and deer, which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and 
fish was more seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vege- 
tables. The first and most common drink was water ; wine, however, was in 
frequent use ; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinking-vessels 
were employed at their repasts.. Ordinarily they had two meals a day, at mid- 
day and evening, and in the earlier times it was the Greek custom to sit at 
table, not to recline. The number of persons at one table was seldom greater 
than ten. 

It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (cf. P. V. § 31), that the persons at a social 
repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the- Muses. — 'The 
Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respecting the proper number at a 
repast (Gell. xiii. 11). Adam. 

"Homer mentions three different sorts of seats: (1) <5%>o f , which contained two 
persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank ; (2) 9p6vos, on which they sat up- 
right, having under their feet, a footstool termed Opfjwg ; (3) k\ktjx6s, on which they sat 
leaning a little backwards." Robinson. — Cf. Horn. Odys. i. 130, 131. 

§ 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned by public 
solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and the like. Some- 
times they were made at the common expense of the guests (epavoj, cf. Odyss. 
i. 226) ; such entertainments, however, were viewed as of inferior rank. The 
feasts upon victims offered in sacrifice have been mentioned (§ 27). 

At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The beginning was 
made by washing the hands. In early times a separate board was placed for 
each guest, and his portion of food thus divided to him. Wine was brought 
by youthful attendants, and the guests often drank to each other, and recipro- 
cally exchanged cups. They endeavored to heighten the joys of the banquet 
by conversation and wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P. 
IV. § 68. 

§ 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, and more 
completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next to the body they 
wore a long robe or frock (xi>tuv), which was kept in place by a girdle, and 
over this a cloak (^XooVa) of thicker materials, to protect against the cold. 
Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mantle ($apoj). The women wore 
also long cloaks or over-garments, called Tttrfkot, often richly embroidered and 
ornamented. They likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not to 
have done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes 
or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the men 
wore a sort of boot or greaves (§ 44). 

O 



158 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early Greeks 
practiced frequent bathing, and with it united the custom of anointing. In 
bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on -account of its purifying and 
strengthening properties. They also had warm baths in their houses. After 
taking the bath they anointed the body with oil ; costly ointments, expressly 
prepared for the purpose, were of later invention. They cultivated in every 
way the growth of the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal 
beauty and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown. 
They were also pleased with frizzled or curled locks, and employed artificial 
means to secure such forms to their hair. 

§ 56. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in the earlier 
periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions of Homer, which, 
aside from their poetical character, relate only to the palaces or dwellings of 
distinguished personages. (Cf. P. IV. § 232.) Respecting these we may 
remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded by some kind of a wall, not very 
high ; between the wall and the house itself was the fore-court, in which an 
altar usually stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main 
building or house, often highly ornamented without and within ; although the 
art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection which Greek 
architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the dining- 
hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment. The roofs were flat, as 
in oriental countries, and often served as places of resort both by day and by 
night. 

§ 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, and the 
needy; and the rites of hospitality were held sacred among them. Jupiter 
himself was considered as the god and rewarder of hospitality, and the avenger 
of all violations of its laws, and on that account was styled ftivtos (P. II. § 25). 
They had no public inns (cf. § 168), but travelers found reception with those 
who stood related to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not 
only between particular persons, but also between whole cities and communi- 
ties. Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each 
other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome 
reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes 
this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. On separating, it 
was common to unite in a friendly repast, and renew their pledge of mutual 
friendship over the wine. Valued gifts were sometimes bestowed on the de- 
parting guest. 

§ 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture may be first 
mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and means of living. The 
boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, which served to guard the 
cultivators against mutual encroachments. The culture of the vine and of 
trees was also an object of attention. The raising of cattle was a common 
employment, and a principal source of wealth. These employments were 1 not 
considered in any way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of 
eminence and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be 
mentioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from 
depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the bow and 
arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and fishing were 
likewise a frequent employment. 

The nets (d'ncrva) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishing were made of flax (AtVa) ; 
the meshes (fipoxoi) being of various sizes according to the use intended. In hunting, the 
nets were supported by stakes (ordXi/c£?) and extended in a curve so as partly to surround 
a space into which the animals were driven. Several kinds of fishing nets are men- 
tioned, of which the most common were the dyKpi^Marpov (retiaculum) or casting-net, 
and the aayfjvri (tragum) seine or sean. 

See Oppian's Foems on Fishing and Hunting, cf. F. V. § IS.—Ameilhon, sur la peche des Anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, 
. C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 350. 

§ 59. The employments of women consisted partly in the care of the house- 
hold, partly in spinning, weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own 
clothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, cooking and wash- 
ing, were performed by the women. In general, the female sex among the 



JP. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 159 

Greeks was in a state of great, although not slavish subjection to the male. 
There was comparatively little intercourse between the sexes. The women 
lived chiefly by themselves in the apartment assigned to them, the rvvaixu>v or 
rvvaxslov, which was in the interior or upper part of the house (§ 56). Seldom 
were they allowed to go abroad. In later times this close discipline and con- 
finement remained in force, and women shared even less than previously in the 
business and pleasures of men. 

On the ancient method of grinding, cf. Mongez, Sur les meules de moulin employees par les Anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, 
C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iii. p. 441. 

On the state of females, R. G. Lenz, Geschichte der Weiber im heroischen Zeitalter. Hanov. 1790. 8. — Rochefort, Les moeurs des 
siecles heroiques, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxvi. p. 39C— Cf. § 181. 

§ 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were music and 
dancing. The former consisted of vocal and instrumental, which were always 
united ; and it was designed for instruction as well as gratification. Hence 
music, although in a more extended sense of the term, was an essential object 
in education. (Cf. § 179, and P. IV. § 63.) The lyre was the stringed in- 
strument the most in use, and of wind instruments the flute was the most 
common. The former enjoyed the preference, because it was more easily ac- 
commodated to song, and also left the performer at liberty to use his voice. — 
The subjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most 
generally used at banquets and religious festivals, which were also the most 
common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customary to join various 
sports and exercises of the body, as leaping, running, riding, wrestling, and 
the like. 

§ 61. Marriage and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in connection with 
the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the daughter was usually 
given by the father. It consisted of female ornaments, a portion of the flocks 
and herds, and the like. There were no degrees of consanguinity forbidden 
in marriage, except that between parents and children ; yet it was considered 
as highly censurable for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage 
the consent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the 
bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously, 
according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. In this 
procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the newly married, 
and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths and virgins. Dancing 
usually accompanied the music ; and the whole was followed by a nuptial 
feast. A widow seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not ex- 
pressly forbidden. At least, it did not take place until five years or more after 
her widowhood. 

§ 62. Parents of the better class took special care of the education of their 
children^ both physical and moral. The mother was accustomed to nurse her 
own children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or con- 
dition. The aid of others in this respect was sought only in cases of absolute 
necessity. In subsequent years the children had particular teachers and over- 
seers, who instructed them in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the 
art of war. Cf. P. IV. § 64, § 71. 

On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, reverence, and 
obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benediction, and considered his 
curse as the greatest of evils. They endeavored to repay to parents in old 
age the care experienced by themselves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly 
required by law. They looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict ven- 
geance on such as had injured their fathers. 

On respect paid to old age among the ancients, cf. Class. Journ. iii. 142, 320; iv. 319. On the manners and morals of the 

earlier ages, cf. Rochefort, as cited § 59.— C. P. Levesque, Sur les Maurs des Grecs du tempB d'Homere, in the Mem. de VInstitut, 
C 1 a s s e des Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. ii. 

§ 63. The slaves (SoiAoc) of the Greeks, male and female, were persons that 
had been taken prisoners in war (cu^aTiwr'oj, av8pdrto8ov), or were purchased 
of others. Slaves of the latter class were not common in early times. The in- 
troduction of commerce or trade in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the 
island of Chios, at a later period. The master had an almost unlimited power 



160 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

over his slave, extending even to the right of life and death. Sometimes the 
gift of liberty was bestowed. 

Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, who were accus- 
tomed to let their services for hire (Fiji's s, Ttshd-t en), especially in the agricul- 
tural and pastoral employments, which were originally so common in Greece. 
A retinue of servants for mere display or luxury was not indulged in during 
the period of which we have thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99. 



II. — Of the later and more flourishing Jlges. 

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 

§ 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the advancement 
of civilization; although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was 
chiefly of early origin, engendered and fostered by the ignorance, superstition, 
and sensuality of the first ages. The mythical fictions were enlarged, the 
modes of representing the gods were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacri- 
fices, and all the solemnities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. 
The pomp and splendor of their religion became very imposing, especially at 
the period distinguished for the flourishing state of all their affairs. At that 
time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the representation and 
illustration of religious story, and the ornamenting of religious edifices. (Cf. 
P. IV. § 178, 197, 198, 234.) This circumstance gives additional interest and 
importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. 

§ 65 a. The temples (vaol, Ispd) were still built in a simple taste, yet in greater 
number and splendor. The interior had commonly two parts, of which the 
innermost was the sanctuary (advtov), into which the priest only entered. The 
place where stood the statue or image of the god to whom the temple belonged 
was in the middle of the temple, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice 
work or the like, and therefore termed aqx6$. 

Originally the Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of mountains 
or hills, where they afterwards first erected their temples. When in the common creed 
the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, &c, as their appropriate pro- 
vinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed agreeable to the several gods. 
More than one deity, however, were sometimes worshiped in the same temple; they 
were then called avwaoi or awoiKerai ; and when they had a common altar, avp.Pwpioi. 
Different styles of architecture were used for different deities; Doric pillars, e. g. for 
Jupiter or Mars; Ionic, for Bacchus, Apollo, Diana; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. 

The temple usually stood in a space inclosed by a fence or wall (sp KO s, ™p(6o\os), which 
contained, besides the temple, often other sacred buildings and a grove ; the whole space 
was called rtpievos, a term sometimes restricted to the space set apart in the temple for 
the image of the god. 

In the temple, some say at the door, others near the Uvrov, was placed a vessel of 
stone or brass (mptppavrfipiov) filled with holy water for the purpose of sprinkling those 
admitted to the sacrifices. The part of the temple before the owds was called npo^o/Aos ; 
that behind it (miadofonog. The_ outer porch was termed nponvXa or npoTrv^aia. — There 
also belonged to the temple a treasury (dpxeiov) for preserving its own property, or that 
of others intrusted to it. — The statues and offerings to the gods found in the temples 
have been spoken of (§ 21, 28). Statues called AionsTr) , fallen from Jupiter, were kept 
in the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed from the sight of all but the 
priests. 

For other particulars respecting the structure of the temples, see P. IV. § 234. 

§ 65 b. The altars (jSco^ot) were placed towards the east, and had various 
forms, round, square, or oblong. They were ornamented with horns, partly 
that the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that supplicants 
might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for refuge. Perhaps also 
they were considered as a symbol of dignity and power. The names of the 
deities, to whom the altars were sacred, were usually inscribed upon them, 
Altars, as well as temples, were consecrated to their proper use with solemn 
ceremonies, particularly by anointing. 



PLATE XVIII 







21 



161 



o2 



162 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter Olympus 
is said to have been twenty-two feet high. The altars of the terrestrial gods were 
lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were made in pits or 
trenches ($ 29) used instead of altars. The nymphs weft worshiped in caves (<Wpa). 
Altars were formed of various materials; often of earth, or of ashes, as that at Thebes . 
to Apollo Znodwg ; sometimes of horn, as that at Delos; sometimes of brick; often of 
stone; some were overlaid with gold (cf. $ 26). They were either square or round ; 
and were often highly ornamented by sculpture. 

Different forms of altars are given in the Sup. Plate 30, where are seen an altar of Jupiter, 
one of Neptune, and one of Bacchus. Cf. $ 205. 

§ 66. The practice of appropriating sacred groves for the honor and service 
of the gods was also retained in later times. Their agreeable shade, as well 
as the stillness reigning in them, was favorable to pious meditation. Although 
the use of groves was diminished by the multiplication of cities and villages, 
yet a grove once dedicated to the gods remained forever sacred and inviolable. 
As well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, although 
this privilege was conferred upon them only by a special consecration for the 
purpose, and did not belong to all the places of religious worship as a matter 
of course. The privilege of being such asylums or places of refuge was some- 
times awarded to the statues and tombs of heroes. — Certain portions of land 
and cultivated ground were also assigned to the gods, which were likewise 
called ts'fiswfi the fruit of which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share 
of the priests. 

A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, was consecrated 
to Ceres and Proserpine, and called 'Opya?. — Trees were also set apart and with cere- 
mony consecrated to some god (Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). 

The privileges of the sacred temples, as asyla, continued until the reign of Tibe- 
rius Caesar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged (Tac. Ann. iii. 
60-63). on account of the abuse of them by worthless villains. 

Simon, Les asyles, Mem. Acad. Inscr. iii. 35.— R. Mayo, Mythology, vol. i. p. 156.— S. Pegge, History of the Asylum, &c. in the 
ArcluBOlogia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 1. 

§ 67. The three principal duties of the priests {lipu$, called also Ispovpyoi, 
Seovpyoi, $vt?cu) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. With these were united 
sometimes the declaration and interpretation of oracles. The requisite qualifi- 
cations for the priesthood were a body free from all defects and blemishes 
{o'kox'Kripoi xal acps?^), lawful birth (yv^tftos), and an irreproachable course of 
life. Upon the rank of the god depended the number of the priests, who were 
employed to attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the various 
functions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, if not 
more (ap%iepn<;, IspoSuSdaxahoc, Ispofyuv-tcu), charged with the oversight of the 
religious worship in general (dp^tepwtfw^). — The office of the parasites (rtapd- 
Gitoi) was to collect the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices (rtpooogta 
.uEyotf.a) into the storehouse appropriated therefor (rtapacaVtov). — The heralds 
(xTjpvxei) were ranked among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents 
(vf.u>xopoi) whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples. 

The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, and their 
head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet and a crown of the 
leaf sacred to their particular god. 

In our Plate XXVII. fig. C, is a view of a Grecian priest and priestess, in their robes ; each has 
a thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of Bacchus, and a vessel in the other. 
The priestess is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monument given in Moses, 
Antique Vases, Altars, &c. 

1. Priests holding their office by inheritance (§ 22) were called hi Ik yhov<; ; those 
who received it by lot, k\y)pu>to\ ; those by election, aiperol or bpr,<pionkvoi. Some of the 
Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheritance were the EiytoA- 
nidai, intrusted with the oversight of the Elusinian mysteries ; Krjpvxeg, descendants 
of Ceryx ; the QauXwiSai, descendants of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at 
ArgOS also, called ' Axmropidai. Priestesses (Ispeiai, dpnreipai, dpxiepeiai, lepocpavriSes) were 
taken from noble families. Those of Ceres were termed MsAwo-ai ; those of Bacchus, 
B&Kxai, Qva6es, Maivaks. — Sometimes services connected with the worship of the gods 
were performed by persons not properly belonging to the priesthood {kzx^P^^ '- "fr 
lepoiuvvris ) ; as e. g. sacrificers (Icpoirotol), of whom ten are said to have been appointed 
annually at Athens, and who conducted all the usual sacrifices ; keepers of the tem- 
ple and utensils {vao<pv\aKeq) ; stewards or treasurers (ra/jdai -tiv Upav xp>?/-<ar«y).-— Priests 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. SACRIFICES. OATHS. 163 

who were constantly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of the people at 
sacrifices, were called Upo-noXot §ewv. — All who served the gods were maintained out 
of the sacrifices and offerings. — At Athens, those intrusted with the care of religion 
were required to render an account of their doings to certain civil officers appointed 
for the purpose. The 'lepopv^pwv seems to have been charged with keeping the sacred 
records. The priests had attendants called kpolovkoi. 

On the priesthood of the Greeks, see /. Kreuser, Der Hellenen Priesterstaat mit vorzilglich RUcksicht auf die Hierodulen. Mainz. 
— Class. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Bougainville, Des ministres des Dieux a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Jnscr. xviii. 60 ; xxiii. 51. — 
Letronne, Sur les fonctions des Hieromnemons, &c. in the Mem. de VInstitut, C lass e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 221. 

2. Purification has already been mentioned (§ 23) as a rite of great importance 
among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priestesses were 
obliged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attending the 
solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprinkled with the water in 
the Trepippai>T>jpioi/ (cf. § 65 a). This water was consecrated by putting into it a burning 
torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel (dacpvn) or olive. Purification was also some- 
times made by drawing round the person a sea-onion or squill (o-KiAXa), or a young 
dog {oKv\a%) ; sometimes eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a 
pig. Some of the terms employed to designate purifying are nepippaivsiv, TrEpipdmadai, 
Kadaip£iv, ayvifyiv, iXa<r/idj, ayvi(Tjxdg, teXeHj, &c. — Sometimes in purifications not only the 
hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. 

§ 68. The sacrifices had different names according to the occasions of them. 
The thank-offering (^apto-r^pia) was in recognition of some favor received, 
often in fulfilment of some vow made; the sin-offering (l%a6T?i,xd) was in order 
to propitiate an offended deity ; the invocation-offering (cW*^ ixa) was presented 
in case of seeking some particular favor. There were other particular sacri- 
fices, which were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god. 
(d?t6 /xavt Etas'). 

The beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the libation 
(GrtovSq, § 24. 2) ; then followed the incense, the burning of something fragrant 
l^vfA.la/xa) ; and at length the sacrifice itself, properly speaking, or the slaying 
of the victim (ispsZov). The principal ceremonies have already been mentioned 
(§ 27). — Persons who had the right of being present at a sacrifice were termed 
aj3ejfy%oi, and those who had not, j3l,3^ot. The latter were called upon by the 
heralds to retire before the ceremonies commenced. 

Different animals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as has been mentioned 
in treating of the ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, however, was the 
ox (/3ovs) ; hence the term /3ov6uteTv, to sacrifice oxen : those assistants who slew the 
victims were called povdvrai. Bulls (ravpot), sheep (mss), and goats (diysy) were often 
offered. The bringing of the victims to the altar was expressed by such phrases as 
■npocayeiv n-t (lupti, or irapaaTwai Svaiav roTc. fiupoTs ; they were often brought adorned with 
garlands {urtppara), and were always required to be free from blemishes (reXeioi). After 
the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails (cnrXayxvoo-Koiria) 
was made by the soothsayer {imXayxvocKOTTOs), to ascertain the presages of the future. 

Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed to offer 
cakes of coarse flour (nomva, irzkavoi, nipipara) ; these were sometimes made in the shape 
of animals. 

It does not appear to have been ever an approved custom among the Greeks to offer human 
sacrifices, although it was repeatedly done; cf. P. II. § 17. Themistocles is said to have sacri- 
ficed to the gods several Persian captives. (Plutarch, Them.) Human victims were sacrificed 
particularly lo the manes and infernal gods.— Cf. Lactantius, De Falsa Religione, c. 21.— Eusebius, 
Praep. Evang. iv. 16. 

§ 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oaths of the Greeks, in which 
they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury. 
They distinguished between the solemn or great oath (o ixiya$ 6'pxoj) and affir- 
mations in ordinary cases. Jupiter was considered as especially the god and 
guardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury, although oaths were taken in the 
name of other gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great 
superior gods (pa SuSsxa &ovs). Sometimes they swore by the gods, indefi- 
nitely and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weapons, or 
any article of which they made use. Not unfrequently the oath was in the 
name of living or deceased men, such especially as had been highly esteemed 
and loved. The oath was usually joined with a distinct imprecation of ven- 
geance on the swearer himself in case of falsehood ; and was sometimes con- 
firmed by a sacrifice, the flesh of which, however, could not be eaten. Severe 
punishments were decreed against perjury (trttopxta). Yet the Greeks, espe- 



164 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cially the Thessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. At 
least mutual distrust was characteristic of the corrupt Greeks of later times, 
and among the Romans the phrase Graeca fides was synonymous with perfidy. 

Leagues and covenants were confirmed by making oaths and slaying sacrifices ; 
hence opxia t^vsiv signifies to enter into covenant. Notwithstanding the great perfi- 
diousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath (evopKoc) as of course 
a pious person (svare0fis). 'ArriKfi mans signifies lionest failh. 

Massieic, Sur les Serments des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. i. p. 191 ; vol. iv. p. 1. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
p. 649. 

§ 70. The opinion was very early entertained, that the gods honored certain 
men, especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. There were supposed 
to be two modes of revelation ; one immediate, by direct inspiration ; and the 
other mediate or artificial, which was considered as the fruit of great knowledge, 
experience, and observation. Oracles (^p^tf^pux, /.mvtsLa) were of the first 
kind ; and the second kind was divination (/xavtUrj). — From oracles, the Greeks 
were accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and undertakings, predic- 
tions of the result (zpytifioc, koyux, fiavtsv/xata). It is obvious that they could 
be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose artifice their exist- 
ence and support are in great measure to be ascribed. The oracular answers 
were not given in any one uniform manner, but sometimes immediately, as was 
pretended, from the gods (zpqtfpoi avtofyavoi), sometimes through an interpreter, 
(*?70>ot vrtofyTi-tixoi), or by a pretended dream, or by lot. 

Persons who consulted the oracles were termed Seonpoiroi, Seapol, xpwpo<p6poi ; the in- 
terpreters, xpwp-o\6yoi. Presents and sacrifices were always requisite before consulting 
an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days. 

■ The question has been agitated, whether the responses uttered from the ancient oracles were 
the mere imposture of priests, or proceeded from the agency of Satan making use of their delu- 
sions. Van Dule in a learned treatise urged the former view. Fontenelle advocated the same 
side. Baltvs with much learning maintained the latter view, in agreement with some of the 
Christian Fathers. 

»i Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was 
designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of oracles. "We found at the foot 
of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious telltale remains yet discovered among the 
vestiges of pagan priestcraft; it was nothing less than one of the oracular shrines of Jlrgos, 
alluded to by Pausanias, laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he 
may see the contrivance whereby it was made to speak. A more interesting sight for modern 
curiosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Grecian city. In its original 
state, it had been a temple; the farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an 
excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, 
and part of the fictile superstructure; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a secret sub- 
terraneous passage, terminating behind the altar; its entrance being at a considerable distance 
toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to have a small 
aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough 
to admit the entrance of a single person ; who, having descended into the narrow passage, might. 
creep along until he arrived immediately behind the center of the altar; where, being hid by 
some colossal statue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce a most imposing 
effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneath, who were listening in silence upon the 
floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeavoring to mimic the 
solemn farce acted upon these occasions; and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotundo, from 
the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides of the rock, afforded a 
tolerable specimen of the ' icill of the gods,'' as it was formerly made known to the credulous 
votaries of this now forgotten shrine. There were not fewer than twenty-five of these juggling 
places in Peloponnesus, and as many in the single province of Bmotia ; and surely it will never 
again become a question among learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the 
inspiration of evil spirits, or whether they proceeded from the imposture of priests ; neither can 
it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ : because Pausanias (Corinth, c. 24, p. 165, ed. 
Kuhnii) bears testimony to their existence at Jlrgos in the second century." 

See Van Dale, De Oraculis veterum Etbnicoium. Amsf. 1700. 4.—S. Fontmtlle, Histoire des Oracles. La Haye, 1728. 12.— 
/. F. Baltus, Answer to Fontenelle's History of Oracles ; transl. from the French. Lond. 1710. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. Rollin, bk. x. ch. 3 
(p. 391. vol. l ed. cited § 13) — Blackwood's Magaz. vol. xiv. p. 277. 

§ 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished of the 
ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the 
Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. Before this time, however, this 
oracle, of Pelasgic origin (cf. P. IV. § 41), seems to have existed in that place. 
There was a grove of oaks* sacred to Jupiter, and superstition ascribed the 
actual exercise of the gift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, 
which were thence called [xavtixai 8pve$. The priests, called aTtotyyjt at and 
X&Jhoi, concealed themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the 
pretended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near 
the temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A fountain in the place was 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 165 

likewise celebrated as possessing the wonderful power, not only of extinguish- 
ing a torch, but of kindling it again. 

1. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves, 
which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announced 
them, were called in the Thessalian language niXeiai, and mXetaSes. There were also 
priests called r6[xovpoi, whose business was to interpret the sounds of the vessel on cer- 
tain occasions. Two columns stood by the temple ; to one of which the vessel was 
attached ; on the other was a boy with a scourge in his hand ; the ends of the scourge 
consisted of little bones, which being moved by the wind knocked against the metallic 
vessel attached to the other column. — From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase 
AwStovaiov xoXkcTov, applied to talkative persons. — The temple is said to have stood upon 
an eminence near a fountain.' — In the Sup. plate 28 is a view of Dodona, in which 
many of the allusions to the oracle are represented. 

Sallier, and De Brasses, L'Oracle de Dodona, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. v. p. 35. xxxv. p. £9.— Cordes, De oraculo Dodonaeo. 
Groning. 1826. 8.—/. Arneth, Ueber das Tauben-orakel von Dodona. Wien, 1840. 8.— Lassaulx, Das Pelasgische Orakel des Zeus 
zu Dodona. Wurtzb. 1840. 8. 

On the site of the temple, cf. Pouqueville, as cited P. I. § 87. 

2 u. Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in a desert and almost inac- 
cessible region of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the 
Great. 

3. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered by the English traveler 
Browne in 1792, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. Rennell's Geog. Syst. of Herod, sect. 21.) Near it 
was the famous fountain of the sun. The spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. (Cf. P. I. § 179.) 
The ruins of the temple indicate an Egyptian origin. — When this oracle was consulted, a splen- 
did statue of the god was carried in procession by numerous priests (cf. P. II. $ 24). A view of 
it is given in the Sup. Plate 29. 

4. Several other oracles of Jupiter are mentioned. Herodotus speaks of four : at Egyptian 
Thebes ; at Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia ; and says the one at Thebes 
was the original. Besides these, there was an oracle of Jupiter in Bceotia ; also in Elis at Olym- 
pia ; and one in Crete, in a cave of Mount Ida. 

§ 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were considered to 
belong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renowned was that at 
Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple illustrious beyond all 
others on account of its treasures, the abundance and costliness of the gifts 
bestowed there. The spot where the answer was given, was called Pythium 
(Eh&ioj/), and the priestess, who uttered it, Pythia (Ili&ca), from the surname 
which Apollo received in consequence of killing the serpent Python (Ilv^cov). 
This spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited 
earth (d^a^oj 757?). According to common tradition this oracle was first dis- 
closed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt. Parnassus, 
were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and jumping. The same 
happened to men, who approached this opening. This oracle was very ancient, 
being celebrated more than a hundred years before the Trojan war. 

1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word 
rrvOeo-Oai, to inquire, or learn; but UvQcj appears to have been originally the name of the 
city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and other splendid works of 
art. Its walls were inscribed with salutary moral precepts ; among them the cele- 
brated one rv«0t acavTov. (P. V. § 169.) Costly tripods were among the gifts conse- 
crated to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the 
Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantine and placed in 
the Hippodrome of Constantinople, upon the " triple heads" of the three brazen ser- 
pents twisted into one pillar. 

The pillar still remains {Gibbon, ch. 17. p. 80. vol. ii. N. York, 1822).— The three heads are said to have been in good preserva- 
tion when Constantinople was taken by the Turks ; Mahomet II. then rode into the Hippodrome and shattered one of them with his 
battle ax ; two were remaining in 1700; but they were stolen about that time by some unknown depredator. (Cf. Land. Quart. 
Rev. ix. 169.) On the origin of the Delphic oracle, cf. Mitford's Greece, ch. 3. sect. 2. 

2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf. § 28), and the celebrity of the ora- 
cle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the chief authority 
over it, occasioned much jealousy among the Grecian states ; in two instances par- 
ticularly they were involved thereby in actual hostilities, in the wars commonly called 
Sacred. 

Mitford's Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxvii-xlii.— De Valois, Guerres Sacrees, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 201. ix. 97. xii. 177. 

§ 73. The tripod (-tpirtovg ^p^ort^ptoj), upon which the priestess sat in utter- 
ing the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable things pertaining to 
the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the seven wise men of Greece, and 
has been viewed as having a threefold reference, to the past, the present, and 



166 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the future. The ITi^'a herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity, 
and was obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many ceremonies. 
In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ecstasy and 
convulsion. * In early times, the oracular response was commonly clothed in 
the form of hexameter verse ; often by a poet employed for the purpose. Ori- 
ginally the oracle was consulted but on a single day in the year, in a month of 
the spring, called Bvcrto? or Ilvcftoj ; afterwards inquiry could be made on a 
certain day of every month. Whoever wished to consult the oracle was re- 
quired to make large presents and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and 
to propose his questions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified 
for receiving the answer by many mystic rites. The answer was commonly 
so enigmatical and ambiguous (xofoj, hence Aoftaj), that it would apply to any 
result that might happen ; and whenever it was clear and definite, the priests 
had informed themselves of all the preliminary circumstances and the proba- 
bilities respecting the issue. — The Delphic oracle was suspended at various 
times, and became finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian. 

Originally, there was one Pythia (or irpofynns) only at Delphi; but after the oracle 
became more frequented, the number was increased to three, chosen from among the 
uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chastity. 
They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost their lives in the paroxysms of the in- 
spiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclamations, 
three in number, were called irpo<prjrai ; who always took care to ascertain previously 
much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. The prophets 
were aided in the sacrifices and ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pythia 
on the tripod, by five priests called oo-wi, who were under a chief called bmwriip. — The 
TTEpmyriTal were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in point- 
ing out to them its curiosities. A great number of persons were required for the va- 
rious services of the temple and oracle. 

On this oracle of Apollo, see Hardion, Oracle de Delphes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 137.— C. F. Wilster, De Religione 
et Oraculo Apollinis Delphici. Hafn. IS21.—K. D. HUllmann, Wurdigung des Delphischen Orakels. Bonn, 1837.— W. Gbtte, 
Das Delphische Orakel, in seinem politischen, religitisen, und sittlichen Einfluss. Leipz. 1839.— R. H. Klausen, in Ersch und 
Gruber, Encyclopadie, under Orakel. 

§ 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. The more 
important of them were the following : the oracle of Apollo at Didyma, which 
was called also the oracle of the Branchidae ; those of Delos, Abae, Claros, 
Larissa, Tegyrae and other minor cities ; where answers were also given from 
Apollo ; the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea in Bceotia, in a subterranean 
cave, said to have been the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers des- 
cended, after performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of 
the future by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vicinity 
of Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by 
dreams. — The number of the ancient oracles amounted to two hundred and 
sixty. 

1. The oracle of Trophonius is described chiefly by Pausanias (ix. 37), who says he entered 
the cave. The oracle was upon a mountain, where was a grove, temple, and statue of Tropho- 
nius. Within an inclosure made of white stones, upon which were erected obelisks of brass, 
was an artificial opening like an oven; here by a ladder the person consulting the oracle 
descended, carrying in his hands a certain composition of honey. On returning, the person was 
required to write down what had been seen or heard. — In Plate XIX. is a representation of this 
oracle. — As there was a story that a visitor to the cave never smiled after his return, it became 
common to describe a gloomy person by saying he had been to the cave of Trophonius ; see an 
amusing application of this, in Addison's Spectator, No. 559. 

The cave is still pointed out to travelers ; also the two fountains Mnemosyne and Lethe. — See Clarhe, Travels, &c. — Pouqueville, 
Voyage, &c. vol. iv. p. 171. 

2. There were numerous oracles of Asclepius or iEsculapius ; of which the most celebrated 
was at Epidaurus. Here the sick sought responses and the recovery of their health by sleeping 
(incubatio) in the temple. It was imagined by F. A. Wolf, that what is now called animal mag- 
netism or Mesmerism was known to the priests of those temples where the sick spent one or more 
nights for the purpose of recovering their health. 

Cf. F. A. Wolf, Beytrag zur Gesch. des Somnambulismus aus dem Alterthum ; in his Vermischte Schriften. 

§ 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediately (cf. § 70), or by means 
of some system or art of divination {pavtixri), was effected in various ways. 
The most important was by theomancy (^o^avtfata), an art possessed by a 
class of persons who were called §eo/j,dvi?i-t,$, and claimed to be under divine 
inspiration. This class comprised three varieties; some were considered as 



vccx 




P. im RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVINATION. 167 

interpreters of the demons by whom they were possessed, and called Sou^ovo- 
'Kr i 7itoi or rtvSoivs j ; others were called h^ovaiaatai or ivSeacrtixob, and enjoyed 
only the intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed 
ixatatLxoi, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during- a wholly superna- 
tural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by the pretext of a 
long trance, insensibility, or sleep. 

Besides what was termed in general theomancy, there were several methods of 
divination, of which the following were the principal. — 1. By dreams, dv£ipono\ia. The 
Greeks ascribed very much to dreams as supernatural, and viewed them either as 
revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as pictures and images of 
future events. The expounders of dreams were called ovapoKpirai, dvapoo-xoiroi, or ovu- 
poiroXm, Three varieties of the dream are named ; xpw aTia P°Si when a god or spirit 
conversed with one in his sleep ; opapa, when one saw a vision of future occurrences ; 
dveipog, in which the future was set forth by' types and figures (dWrjyopiKwi). Two other 
varieties are also mentioned, ivmviov and (pavTao-pa, but are not considered as affording 
much help in divination; tyiakttis, incubus, night-mare, was supposed sometimes to 
indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to be sent from the god of .sleep (P. II. 
§ 113); and from Jupiter {Horn. II. i. 63). A goddess called Brizo ((ipiX.uv, to sleep) 
was thought to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particu- 
larly in Delos. Dreams which occurred in the morning were most regarded in 
divination. 

See Artemidorus, as cited P. V. § 267.— Burigny, Songez, &c. in the Mem. dc VAcad. de.? Jnser. vol. xxxviii. p. 74.— Theory of 
Dreams, cited P. II. § 113. 

2. By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy fepopavrda) or Hieroscopy (upoaKomd). 
It comprehended the observations of many particulars connected with the offering of 
a victim, as portending good or ill. One of the principal things was the inspection of 
the entrails, especially the liver (waToo-Kcnria.), and the heart. The fire of sacrifice was 
also noticed {nvpopavrda) ; likewise the smoke (KairvopavTEia), the wine (divopavrda) , and 
the water (vSpopavrtia, irriyojxavTEia.). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this 
divination according to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the dif- 
ferent rites ; e. g. there was uXsvpopavreia, by the flower or meal used ; ixQvopavrtia, by 
the entrails of fishes ; (hoo-Koma, by eggs. 

3. By birds, diwvio-TiKn. Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, were 
called dpveoo-KOTToi, 6pvido[iavT£ig. Some birds were observed with respect to their flight 
(rawiTTtpvyes) ; others in respect to their singing (<a6ucal). Unlucky birds, or those of ill 
omen, were called ty'Aaipot, pernicious, and kwXvtikcu, hindering from aesigned under- 
takings, and by similar epithets ; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, 
except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered 
as lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of 
the flight of birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appear- 
ances in the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable ; hence the 
use of Se^tdg, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and 
reptiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents, and boars were of ill omen. Bees 
and ants were often thought to foretoken good. 

4. By signs in the heavens (SioaripETa) and other physical phenomena. Comets, 
eclipses, and earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and lightning were lucky 
if observed on the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck with thun- 
der (PpovrrjTds) was unlucky ; in places thus struck, altars were erected and oblations 
made to appease the gods, after which none dared to approach them. 

5. By lots. The two principal modes were those termed a-ixopavrda and xXripopavrda ; 
in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (ort^o?) written upon them, 
were drawn from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person 
by or for whom they were drawn out ;' in the other, various small articles, as beans 
black and white, pebbles, dice, and the like, which were all called xXrjpoi, and were 
considered as being of different significancy, were drawn from an urn or other vessel. 
— Other modes were pafiSopavrda, by rods, and fisXopavrda, by arrows, in which the 
lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posture or from the 
quiver. Another was by the use of the nival dyvpnxos, on which certain prophetic 
verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the verse on which the dice fell. 

6. By magical arts. These were said to have originated in Persia among the Magi, 
fiayot. The degree of attention given among the Greeks to these arts (irepkpya) is 
evinced by a striking fact, recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which seems to imply 
that a great number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the 
various modes need be named ; v£xpopavrda, cxiopavrda, and \Lvxopavrda, in which the 
dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yao-rpopavrda, in which demons were ima- 
gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appearances 
of water in the middle part (ydarpn) of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted 
torches ; xopopavrda, in which the performers observed the forms assumed by drops 



168 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — The aXE/crpvopavrtia was a sort of 
divination by lot, yet classed among the magical arts ; the letters of the alphabet were 
written in a circle ; a grain of wheat or barley was laid upon each letter ; a cock was 
placed in the center ; and the desired information was obtained by putting together 
the letters from which the cock picked the grains. — It is proper to mention here some 
of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought ; as, 
e. g., 'l>apjxaKeta, in which medicated herbs, minerals, and the like {(pdppaxa) were used ; 
and Paamvia, which was a sort of fascination or malign influence which certain per- 
sons were supposed to exert. 

See Bonamy and Le Blond, &c. as cited § 227.— On divination by the cup, cf. Class. Journ. x. 232. 

7. Finally, divination was also made from various things included under the general 
name of omens (evp(2o\a). One class of these consisted of such as were drawn from 
the person himself, as naXpol, palpitations of some part of the system ; P6p{3os, a ringing 
of the ears ; nrappol, sneezings, &c. Another class consisted of those drawn from 
objects external to the person; as the meeting of certain objects or animals on the 
road (evoha avp^oKa), or certain occurrences at home (to diKoo-Ko-mKov). Certain words 
were also ominous; such were called orrat, K\n56veg, <pi}pai. The Greeks, especially the 
Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, carefully substituting others , as, e. g. 
'EvptevUss instead of 'Epiwvcg, and <pi\arris instead of /cXcttjk. 

On the ancient art of divination, see Cicero, De Drvinatione.— Cf. Waclismuth, Historical Antiquities, as cited § 13.— Potter, 
Archceol. Graec. bk. ii. ch. 12-18. 

§ 76. The festivals formed an important part of the religious worship of the 
Greeks. Their establishment and support was partly for the sake of honoring 
and supplicating the gods, and commemorating persons of merit, and partly 
for the sake of rest, reereation, union, and harmony of social feeling. Their 
number greatly increased with the multiplication of the gods and the progress 
of luxury and wealth; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremo- 
nies increased in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at Athens. 
They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn from 
various sources. 

See M. G. Hermann, Die Feste von Hellas historisch-philosophisch bearbeitet und zum erstenmal nach ihrem Sinn und Zweck 
CTlautert. Berlin, U03. 2 Th. 8. 

§ 77 1. Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned (P. II.) 
in the history of particular gods, under the head of Mythology. A slight 
notice of them here must suffice. The principal out of an almost countless 
multitude, will be named in alphabetical order, and then some particulars added 
respecting a few of these. 

1 u. 'Ayp itovia, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. 'ASuvia, 

dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis. 'AXwa, to Bacchus and Ceres. « 

'AvQearfipia, observed at Athens three days, also in honor of Bacchus. 'Ana* 

rovpia, at Athens, in commemoration of a victory obtained by Melanthus, through 
stratagem, over the Boeotian king Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other 

gods. 'A(l>po6i(Tia, a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of 

Cyprus. 'Bpavpcov ia, sacred to Diana, in Attica, celebrated every fifth year. — 

Aa(pvr]<p6pia, to Apollo in Bceotia, only every ninth year. A»5X ia, also to Apollo, 

on the island of Delos, every fifth year. A npvrpia, sacred to Demeter or Ceres. 

At'Ciro \e i a, an Athenian festival, instituted in honor of Jupiter, as tutelary god of the 
city (Uohevs). -Aiovvaia, to Dionysus or Bacchus; a greater and more solemn festi- 
val in the cities ; and a lesser one in the country ; the same that was called by the Ro- 
mans Bacchanalia. There were innumerable forms of this festival.— — 'E Kar 6p.fi aia,. 
dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom they sacrificed a hecatomb on the first day 

of this festival. 'E\ev<riv i a, the most celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and 

smaller, connected with the well known mysteries. "E ppaia, & festival of Mercury, 

in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete.- 'E^eo-ia, a festival of Diana atEphesus. "Hpala, a 

festival of Juno at Argos. 'Hep a iarei a, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, accompanied 

by races with torches. 8 za po <p 6p i a, the festival of legislation in honor of Ceres, at 

Athens and other Greek cities. Kapveia, sacred to Jupiter and Apollo, almost 

throughout all Greece, for nine days. AvKaia, an Arcadian festival in honor of 

Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. [But this term usually designates a festival of Pan 
corresponding to the Roman Lupercal. Cf. P. II. § 80.] — ■ — 'Oanocpdp ia, a festival 
of the Athenians instituted by Theseus, and so called from the custom of carrying 

branches about on the occasion. n avaOnvat a, one of the most solemn festivals 

at Athens, dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated annually ; the greater 

every fifth year. Both were connected with various contests and games. JleAoi- 

pia, a Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance to the Sa- 
turnalia of the Romans. 'SipaXa, a general name applied to solemn sacrifices, 



'XX 




P. HI. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 169 

which were brought to the gods in the different seasons, with a view to secure good 
weather. 

For a more complete enumeration and description, cf. Potter, Archaeol. Grseca, bk. ii. ch. 20.— Cf. Lurcher, on certain Greek 
festivals, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 412; and xlviii. p. 252. 

2. "The festival called 'A 6 wvi a was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece. 
The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of Adonis 
and Venus were brought forth with all the pomp and ceremonies used at funerals ; the 
women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and counterfeited other actions usual in 
lamenting the dead. This lamentation was called dhoviaopdc. or dSojvia, and hence aScovCav 
ayetv signifies the same as "AScoviv kXcluiv, to weep for Adonis; and the songs on this 
occasion were denominated aduviSia. With the images were also carried shells filled 
with earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces; in memory 
that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called mjiirot, gardens ; and 
hence 'Adtovrfos Krjnoi were proverbially applied to things unfruitful and fading, because 
those herbs were sown only so long before the festival as to be green at that time, and 
were presently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called 
yiyypiai from yiyypm, the Phoenician name of Adonis ; the music, yiyypaap.6g ; and the 
songs were called yiyypavra. The sacrifice was denominated KaOeSpa, because the days 
of mourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible 
demonstrations of joy and merriment ; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, 
Venus obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her one-half of every 
year. This fable is applied to the sun which produced the vicissitudes of summer and 
winter." 

Cf. P. II. § 47.— Banitr, Culte d'Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. v»l. iii. p. 98. 

3. " The Atovvaia were sometimes called by the general name of "Opyia, which, 
though sometimes applied to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged 
to those of Bacchus. They were also sometimes denominated Ba<\;aa. They were 
observed at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition, 
than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by them ; the chief 
archon had a share in their management ; and the priests who officiated were honored 
with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without 
splendor, being days set apart for public mirth, and observed only with the following 
ceremonies : — a vessel of wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought forth ; next 
followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs ; and after all, the phalli. — At some 
of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated the poetical fictions 
concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and miters ; carried thyrsi, 
drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, 
and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and 
exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic motions ; some rode upon asses ; and 
others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about 
the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men deranged in their intel- 
lects, and crying aloud, EvoT Yd0oi, Evoi Ba*0C£, u> ^laioce, 'lofiaKXe, or 'Iw Ba*%e. 

The great festival, Aiovwia peydXa, was sometimes called danm, or rot kcit' wtv, be- 
cause celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, in the month 
'E\a(priPo\ia>v. It was sometimes by way of eminence called Aiovwia, because it was 
the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at Athens, and was probably the same 
as Aiovvaia dpX<^orepa. 

The less, Awww piKpa, was sometimes called ra k<xt dypovg, because it was observed 
in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater festival, and 
was celebrated in autumn, in the month Uoaeikwv or Yap.p'XtoJv. Some are of opinion, 
that it was the same as Aiovvaia \nvaid, which received its name from \rivdg, a wine- 
press." 

There appear to have been four Attic festivals in honor of Bacchus ; the Amvoia 
Kar dypovq, the Afjvaia, the 'Avdearfipia, and the Aiovvcia kcit darv. Other festivals in his 
honor are also named. 

In our Plate XXV. fig. e, we have a Bacchante dancing with a thyrsus in one hand and a wine 
cup in the other; in fig./, another Bacchante with some musical instrument in each hand, per- 
haps the crotala. A male reveler is seen on the altar of Bacchus, given in the Sup. Plate 30. 

Cf. Schtitt, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. ii. p. 5, as cited P. V. § 7. 9.— On festivals of Bacchus, see also P. II. 5 59 ; P. IV. § 66. 2.— See 
Spalding, in the Abliandl. der Bcrl. Acad. 1811 ; and A. Sbckh, Vom Uuterschiede der Attischen Lenaen, Anthesterien, &c. in the 
Abhandl. dcr Berl. Ac. 1819. 

4. " The 'EX eve iv i a was a solemnity observed by the Celeans and Phliasians 
every fourth year ; by the Pheneatce, the Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, and Cretans, 
but more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at Eleusis, a borough town of 
Attica. It was the most celebrated solemnity in Greece, and was, therefore, by way of 
eminence, called rd pvarnpia, the mysteries, and rekerfi. It is said by some to have been 
instituted by Ceres herself, when she had supplied the Athenians with corn in a time 
of famine. Some say that it was instituted by king Erectheus ; and others, bv 
Eumolpus. 

22 P 



170 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

It was divided into the faicpk and ixeyaXa pwrfipia, lesser and greater mysteries ; and 
then the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter Proserpine. 
M.acpa ixixTTi'ipia, the lesser mysteries, were observed in the month m ' Avdearripiuiv at Agrae, 
a place near the river Ilissus ; and the fxeydXa pvcTfipia, greater mysteries, were cele- 
brated in the month Boridpopiibv, at Eleusis, a borough-town of Attica, from which Ceres 
was called Eleusinia. In later ages the lesser festival was used as a preparation to 
the greater, in which they could not be initiated till they had been purified at the 
former. 

About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and 
were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which (with the exception 
of a few known only to the priests) were openly revealed to them, and hence they 
were called tyopoi and bfowTai, inspectors. Persons of both sexes and of all ages were 
initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into these mysteries was consi- 
dered a crime of a very heinous nature, and formed a part of the accusation for which 
Socrates was condemned to death. — 'All the Greeks might claim initiation into the 
mysteries ; but the people of every other natjpn were excluded by an ancient law ; 
and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they 
had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred from these 
mysteries. 

The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with 
myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called pvanndg 077/co?, the mystical temple, 
or pLva-ToSoKog dopdg, which was an edifice very capacious (P. II. § 63). At their entrance 
they washed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to 
present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external clean- 
ness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to 
them out of a book called nlrpoipa, from nerpa, a stone, because the book was only two 
stones cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called 
lepoipavrr];, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon 
after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they 
were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and. instantly was 
covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth 
seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called 
avroxpia, intuition. They were then dismissed in these words, Kdy£, "Opma$. The gar- 
ments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting 
evils and incantations. 

The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called fiatovxos, torch-bearer, to 
whom it was permitted to marry; the second, K?jpv%, the crier; and the third, 6 ml 
0wjx(3, from his ministering at the altar. 'lepocpdvrns is said to have been a type of the 
Great Creator of all things ; SaSovxos, of the sun ; Krjpv}-, of Mercury ; and b tiri /?&>//«, 
of the moon. 

There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing that all 
things were performed according to custom. Of these was /3aai\ev s , the king, who 
was one of the archons, and who was obliged to offer prayers and sacrifices at this 
solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregularity was committed during the 
festival ; four ETnpxXrjrdl, curators, who were elected by the people, and ten persons who 
assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who were called kfxmoiol, from their 
offering sacrifices. 

This festival continued nine days, and from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of 
the month Boridpoiuwv. During this time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or to pre- 
sent any petition ; and they who were found guilty of such practices were fined one 
thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death. 

On the fourth day of the festival, they made a solemn procession, in which the 
KaXdOiov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds of persons 
shouting as they went, ~Xcups, Arjprjrep (Hail, Ceres). After these, followed certain 
women called Ki<rro<p6poi, who carried baskets in which were contained carded wool, 
grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called 
<P&°ls, poppies, &c. — The fifth was called 'H r&v \ap.na8ojv Ijpcspa, the torch-day; because, 
the night following, the men and women ran about with torches in their hands. It 
was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present 
the largest ; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Pro- 
serpine with a torch lighted at the flames of iEtna. — The sixth day was called Ta*%o?, 
from lacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompa- 
nied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, 
and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn proces- 
sion called "Icikxos.— On the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were re- 
warded with a measure of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleusis." 

JRobinson, Arch;sol. Graeca.— On the Eleusinian Mysteries, see the references given P. II. § 63.— A full account of the Greek mys- 
teries is given in Limhurg-Brouwer, Histoire de la Civilisation, Mor. et Relig. des Grecs. 

5. The Qeirpofpopia was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed $£<rp.o(p6pog (legifera 
or lawgiver), because she was said to have first taught mankind the use of laws. It 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 171 

was celebrated in many Grecian cities ; by the Spartans, the Thebans in Bceotia, the 
Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — " But the Athenians observed this festival with the 
greatest show of devotion ; the worshipers were freeborn women (it being unlawful 
for any of servile condition to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the 
charges ; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three talents. 
These women were assisted by a priest called Sra/xz^dpoj, because his head was 
adorned with a crown ; and by certain virgins, who were kept under severe discipline, 
being maintained at the public charge in a place called Qea/jioipope'iov. The women were 
clad in white apparel.' — Three days at least were spent in making preparations. Upon 
the eleventh of Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein 
the laws were contained, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept ; whence 
this day was called "AvoSos, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and 
lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a fast, sitting upon the 
ground in token of humiliation ; whence the day was called JNVma, a fast." 

Cf. Potter, Boyd's ed. p. 378.— Wellauer, De Thesmoplioriis. Wratisl. 1820. 8. On the Fasts of the ancients, see Morin, L'Usage 

du Jeune, chez Ies Anciens, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 

6. " The Uavadfjvata was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, the protec- 
tress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 'AB^vaia ; and it 
was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all the Athe- 
nian people, and b5^ him was denominated Havadrivaia. Some are of opinion that it 
was the same as the Roman Quinquatria. At first it continued only one day ; but it 
was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with great magnificence. 

There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called Meyd\a IlavaO^vaia, 
the Great Panatheneea, and was celebrated once in five years, beginning on the twenty- 
second of Hecatombseon ; the other was denominated Mtxpd havaOrjvaia, the Less Pana- 
thenaga, and was observed every third year, or, as some think, every year, beginning 
on the twentieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, ma- 
naged by ten presidents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who con- 
tinued in office four years. On the first day was a race with torches, in which first 
footmen and afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the 
greater festival. The second contention was evavSpiag dyebv, a gymnastic exercise in 
which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these 
games was near the river, and was called from the festival navadrivdixdv. The third 
was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the eulogium 
of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of Thrasybulus, who had rescued the repub- 
lic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended 
in four plays, which from their number were called rerpaXoyia. Besides these there was 
a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 55.' — Pausan. i. 27. 
§ 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with 
a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were called p-opiat from 
popog, death, or from jikpos, a part. There was likewise a dance called Pyrrhichia, per- 
formed by boys in armor, who represented to the sound of the flute the battle of Mi- 
nerva with the Titans. No man was permitted to be present at these games in 
dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the dyaivoderris, president of the games. 
Lastly a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, to which every Athenian borough contributed 
an ox; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole 
assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. 

In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, but 
with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In 
particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried the sacred nenXos, 
garment of Minerva. This ncnXos was woven by a select number of virgins, who were 
called epyaariKaX, from epyov, a work, and who were superintended by two of the 
dppr)66pot, and commenced their employment at the festival XaX/c£ia, which was on the 
thirtieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered 
with gold: upon it were described the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of 
Jupiter, of the heroes, and of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and hence 
men of courage and bravery were said to be a^ioi -n-e-Xov, worthy of being portrayed on 
the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession with the nhXo; 
were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built for the pur- 
pose in the form of a ship, upon which the ni-nXog was hung in the manner of a sail, 
which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The narXos was thus conveyed to 
the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was placed upon 
Minerva's statue, which was laid on a bed strewed with flowers, and called nXa/ds. 
This procession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of all 
ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, car- 
rying olive branches in their hands ; and hence they were called SaXXocpopoi, bearers of 
green boughs. After these came middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and 
bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied by the ixztoikoi, so- 
journers, carrying little boats as emblems of their being foreigners, and therefore 
called (7Ka(pri<p6poi, boat-bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' 



172 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

wives, who were called Upia$6poi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. These 
were followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were 
crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features, 
shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were called navin<p6poi, from their 
carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the 
sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one who, because he was chief ma- 
nager of the public processions, was called dpxMwpos. The virgins were attended by 
the sojourners' daughters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were 
thence denominated cKiafaQopoi, umbrella- carriers, and 6«ppo<p6poi, seat-carriers. It is 
probable that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at proces- 
sions, and were called TtavSapiKoi. The necessaries for this and other processions were 
prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between the Pirsean gate and the 
temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole business belonged to the vopoibv- 
Xaxe$, who were appointed to see that the ancient customs were observed. 

The Panathenaic procession is represented on the frieze of the Parthenon. — See Stuart, Antiq. of Athens, cited P. IV. § 243. 1. — 
Visconti, Sculpture du Parthenon, cited P. IV. § 190. 4.— A small but handsome view of the Acropolis and the Panathenaic proces- 
sion is given in Boyd's Potter. 

On the festival, cf. Robinson, Arch. Graec— Potter.— Land. Quart. Rev. xiv. 5M.—H. A. Muller, Panathenaica. 

Among the monuments of ancient art still in preservation are certain vases called Panathenaic 
Vases, as they are supposed from inscriptions on them to have been actually employed to contain 
the sacred oil bestowed upon victors in these games as a part of their prize. 

See P. 0. Bronsted, on the Panathenaic Vases; in the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. p. 102. Lond. 1834.— Be 
Caylus, Vases dont les anciens faisoient usage dans les festives, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 342. 

§ 78. The great public games of "the Greeks were also a part of their religious 
customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were originally established 
in honor of the gods. They were always begun and ended with sacrifices. It 
also entered into their design, and was their effect, to render religion more 
attractive by association with sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact the 
several portions of Greece, and to stimulate and publicly reward superior 
talents. — The exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore 
the common name Hevta&kov. They were running, leaping, wrestling, throw- 
ing the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing, which some put in the place 
of the contest with the javelin. 

See Burette, on these exercises, (la Lutte des anciens — Pugilat, Course, Disque, &c.) in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iii. 
p. 222 ss.— G. F. Philipp, De Pentathlo sive Quinquertio. Berl. IS27. 8. 

§ 79. The race (Sp6uo$) was between fixed boundaries, the starting-place 
(a^stftj, fioJkfiis), and the goal or end (p%07t6$, Tfspixa), on a piece of ground 
measured off for the purpose (wv%6s, crtdSvov), 125 paces in extent. The racers 
were sometimes clad in full armor (oTtutodpopoo). — There were also chariot- 
races and horse-races. 

Those who only ran once over the stadium were called o-raSioSpduoi ; those who ran 
over the space doubled (6lavXo$), that is, both to the goal and back, were called StavXo. 
dp6p.oi ; those who ran over the space twelve times in going and returning, i. e. twenty- 
four stadia, or according to others only seven stadia (66X1x0$), were termed 6oXixo5p6p.oc. 
The goal was sometimes called Kapmrnp; because, in the 6iavXo$ and the 66X1x0$, the 
racers turned round it. — The prize (adXov, (3pa(lsiov) was commonly merely a crown of 

olive, pine, or parsley.-^ The term kcXyites was applied to horses which performed in 

the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the per- 
former (&va(5 anns) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other. In the chariot- 
race, two, three, four, or more horses were employed to draw the chariot (appia) ; hence 
the terms 6voipoi, rkdpmKoi, rerpaupoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the 
course twelve times (6ooj6£Ka6p6poi). It was an object of emulation among the wealthy 
to send chariots for the race to the public games of Greece. 

Gedoyn, Les Courses de Chevaux et de Chars dans les jeux Olympiques, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. viii. 314, 330; ix. 360.— 
Quatrim. de Quincy, Sur la Course armee et les oplitodromes, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'Bist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. 
p. 165. with figures. On the Olympic Stadium, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 277. 

§ 80. For the leap (afyta) also boundaries were marked, the place from which 
(fiutrft), and the place to which (axdfifia) it was made. This exercise was 
performed sometimes with the hands empty, but oftener with metallic weights 
in them, usually of an oval shape (a%T?>jpss), sometimes with weights attached 
to the head or the shoulders. 

The distance leaped over was called xavuv. The point to which the performers were 
to leap was marked by digging the earth; hence its name from okoh™. The phrase 
irnSav v-rrlp to. eaKajjip.£i/a, applied to signify excess or extravagance, was taken from this 
exercise. 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 173 

§ 81. Wrestling (rtca^, xa-tafaqtixvi) was commonly performed in a covered 
portico (Zvotos), the combatants being naked, and making the most violent 
exertions to throw each other to the ground. When one had done this with his 
adversary three times (6 tpia%ai), he received the prize. There were two modes 
of this exercise, one in the erect posture (op^ortca^), the other in the lying pos- 
ture in which the parties contended rolling on the ground (dvaxkivoTtca^ and 
axtvhriciiq or xv%i^i). — When wrestling was united with boxing, it was called 
Ilayxpdtiov or Uay-fxax^ov. 

After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they were 
matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls as 
there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two balls, and those who 
drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd number, he 
who drew theodd lot was called tyedpog, and required to contend with those who con- 
quered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger; 
hence dipt SdxrvXov became proverbial to signify confess that you are conquered. 

In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was it proper for the 
competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancratium, both modes were prac- 
ticed by the combatants (trayKpaTiatrTat or irapp.axoi). 

§ 82. The quoit or discus (oVcrxoj, 6o%oi) was made of stone, brass, or iron, 
of a circular form, and was thrown by means of a thong (xaJuoSiov) passing 
through a hole in the centre. He who threw the farthest took the prize. 

1. The discus was about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some 
state that the Sia-mg was of stone, and the o6\og of iron ; others that the former was 
carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the difference may have 
been wholly in their form or shape. — The exercise is said to have originated with the 
Lacedaemonians. 

2u. The hurling the javelin (ptyis, dxovTung) was practiced either with the hand 
alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft. 
In Plate XVII. rig. Y, is seen a javelin with the thong {amentum) attached to it. 

§ 83. Boxing (rtvy/xr}) was performed with clenched fists, around which they 
sometimes bound the cestus (ifids), i. e. a thong or piece of hide loaded with, 
iron or lead. The chief art in this game was to parry the blows of the antago- 
nist, which were usually aimed at the face. 

The combatant was called Uvkths, from 7ri3f, a fist. The cestus, originally reaching 
no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbow and sometimes to the 
shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and attack. The Ijxuvrsg 
were of several kinds ; those termed usiXixai gave the softest blows ; and the ixvppirjKss 
gave the most severe. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often 
lost their lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows 
were called v-numa. 

Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public games of the 
Greeks contests in music, poetry, and rhetoric, of which mention is made in the Archaeology of 
Literature (cf. P. IV. $ 65, $ 66). 

§ 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were the Olympic, 
Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by way of eminence Sacred 
games (ovycoi/fj ispot). 

The first and most distinguished were the Olympic, named from the place 
Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. By some, Jupiter 
was considered as their founder; by others, an earlier Hercules belonging to 
the Idaean Dactyli; by others, Pelops; by most, Hercules the hero, who was 
the first victor in all the exercises, except in wrestling. They were renewed 
by Iphitus, a contemporary of Lycurgus, about B.C. 888, and afterwards by 
Chorcebus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were. an object of special care to the 
people of Elis. Several inspectors (caveat, jjaj58ovxoc) had charge of the ex- 
ternal arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspector (a%vtdp%q$). 

1 u. Those who wished to appear as combatants were obliged to spend ten months 
at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing the games and various preparatory exercises under 
the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic games especially termed 
'EXXavodiKai. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided 
by lot. The prize was a crown or wreath of olive (Konvog). — 'Among the Olympic 
victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated; the names of thirteen others Pin- 
dar has preserved to posterity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the 
conquerors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely on ac 

p2 



174 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

count of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from every part 
of Greece, and from Asia, Africa, and Sicily. Originally females were not allowed to 
attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'EKarop.0aiu)v, an- 
swering partly to July, and continued five days. They gave rise to the custom of 
reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. Each Olympiad consisted of four 
years. The first Olympiad is generally considered in chronology as corresponding 
with the year 776 B. C. 

2. One judge at first presided over the games; afterwards two; subsequently there 
were twelve; then eight, one from each tribe of the Eleans. The place, where these 
assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises {irpoyvy.vaaiiaTa) of the combatants, 
was called 'KK\r]vo6iKaiov. They took the most solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes im- 
partially. Although women were strictly excluded from witnessing these games at 
first, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. 
Originally the contests all took place in one day ; but at length several days were de- 
voted to them, and sometimes a day to processions and sacrifices and to the banquets 
given to the victors. The Olympic games were celebrated under the Roman empe- 
rors; but were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius. 

3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games 
exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the 
different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who 
thus constituted the great assembly (Jlavfiyvpis) of Greece.! Olympia was in fact called 
■xayicoivos X'opa, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery 
are also mentioned as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. 
They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, historians, 
and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. 

Bancroft's Heeren, p. 129.— G. West's Diss, on the Olympic games, in his Transl. of Pindar, cited P. V. § 60. 5.— Cf. Sulzer's Allg. 

Theorie, close of article Pindar. — ThirlwaU's Hist, of Greece. For more particular accounts of the games, Dissen, Ueber die 

Anordnung der Olympischen Spiele; in his Kleine Schriften.—Krause, Olympia oder Darstellung dergrossen Olympischen Spiele. 
Wiern. 1838. 8. 

§ 85. The Pythian games (n^ta) were celebrated upon the Crisssean plains, 
in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of 
Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and were a commemoration of 
his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself, 
or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originally they were held at the beginning 
of every ninth year (iwas^pts), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning 
of every fifth year (rtevtae'typis). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era 
in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from the 
3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or prize the victors 
received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel. 

1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have been re- 
warded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called IlvSucd? v6p.og, which 
was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it 
consisted of five or six distinct portions, which represented so many separate parts and 
steps in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the customary 
solemn dance, composed of five parts. 

2 u. All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually introduced into 
the Pythian. The Amphictyons had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates 
were required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the 
Pythian odes of Pindar. The spot where these games were held was a plain between 
Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to Apollo. 

3. The Pythian games were sometimes called Apqiktvoviko. a8Xa, because they were under 
the care of the Amphictyons. The particular persons appointed to take the oversight of the 
games were called 'EntneXrjTai ; who also acted as judges. They were assisted, in keeping 
order, by the nacriyoQopoi. The Greek states sent, to attend these games, persons termed 
Qecopoi and TIvdaioTai. 

§ 86. The Nemean games (N^ma or Nf^ucua) derived their name from Ne- 
mea, a city in Argolis between Cleonse and Phlius, in the vicinity of which 
they were celebrated. They were held every third year (tfpiET^ptxot) so as to 
fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to com- 
pute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges were selected from 
the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonse, and were persons distin- 
guished particularly for their love of justice. Their dress was black, because 
the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity (dywv s7tituq>ios) in honor 
of Opheltes, or Anchemorus ; although others state, that they were instituted and 
dedicated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 175 

the victor was a crown of parsley {oi'Kivov). Ten conquerors in the Nemean 
games are celebrated by Pindar. 

See Villoiscm, Les jeux Nemeans, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 29. 

§ 87. The Isthmian games C'ltf^iua) were so called from the place of their 
celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Peloponnesus 
with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, a son of Ino 
and Athamas, who under the name of Palsemon was received by Neptune into 
the number of sea gods. Others represent Theseus as the founder of the 
games, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the 
Corinthians, all the other states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were ex- 
cluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. They 
were held at the beginning of every third year (tpistTjpixol), and were attended 
with the musical contests as well as those in all the athletic exercises. The 
prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a 
period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first 
selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his 
Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancra- 
tiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. 

In our Plate XVI. are seen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8 represents 
the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. 

Solon established by a law that every Athenian, who gained a victory at the Isthmian games, 
should also receive from the public treasury (Plut. Sol. 23) a reward of one hundred drachmae. — 
The triumphal odes, in which the praises of the victors were celebrated, were termed Epinikia. 

See Massieu, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. v. p. 95, 214.— Dissen, in his edition of Pindar ; cf. P. V. § 60.— Krause, Die Pythien, 
Nemeen, und Isthmien. Cf. § 88. 2. ' 

§ 88. On account of the great estimation in which athletics were held among 
the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion and the interests of the 
state, the subject deserves a few additional remarks. 

1 u. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as bodily ex- 
ercises, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it was commonly used to signify those 
more frequent and violent bodily exercises, which were so much practiced in Greece, 
especially at the games already described, and which were viewed as an essential part 
of education, and constituted a great object of the Gymnastic system. Many of those 
who had enjoyed full instruction therein, made these exercises the main business of 
their life. Such were called u0A/?t<" and dycoviardi. The teacher of the system or art 
was called yvixvaariis and ^varapxris, superintendent of a guards, which was a covered gal- 
lery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the floor 
being made smooth and level. Although the Athletse were not strictly in the service 
of the state, yet they received great honor. Their whole mode of life was conducted 
with reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid 
precepts. In most of the exercises they were naked ; in casting the quoit and the jave- 
lin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, they ren- 
dered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered 
themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hold of each other, 
and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface of 
the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 

2 it. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examination 
and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges (dOXoderai, dytovoBirai, '~E\\avo6iKai) 
were appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the 
prize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards of the con- 
querors were the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of 
their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, statues, solemn pro- 
cessions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages. 

For additional remarks on this subject, see P. IV. § 63, § 64.— C. F. A. Hockheimer, Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der 
Griechen, Dess. 1785. 2 vols. 8. a work very instructive on this topic and on Grecian education generally. — Cf. Jahnh Treatise on 
Gymnastics. Northampt. 1828. S.—Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iii. p. 125.— Burette, Histoire des Athletes, in the Hist, dc VAcad. des 
Inscr. vol. i. p. 211.— p. Faber, De Re Athletica, &c. Lugd. 1595. 4. ; also in Gronovius, vol. viii.— H. Mercurialis, De Arte Gym- 
nastica. Amst. 1672. A.— P. M. Paciaudius, De Athletarum Ku/Jio-rjjim in Palaestra Graecorum. Rom. 1756. 4.—/. H. Krause, 
Theagenes ; oder wissensch. Darstellung der Gymnastik, Agonistik, und Festspiele der Hellenen. Halle, 1835. 8. with plates. 

§ 89. Dramatic representations or theatrical performances, among the Greeks, be- 
longed appropriately to religious festivals ; and had their origin, in fact, in religious cere- 
monies, particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens ; this 
circumstance is more fully noticed in the Archaeology and the History of Greek litera- 
ture : see P. IV. § 66. P. V. § 36, $ 37, and 47. Some account of the structure of the 
Greek theatres is given under the head of Architecture; see P. IV. § 235. Besides 



176 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

what is said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added properly in this 
place, respecting the machinery and the performers. 

1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical contrivances. 
Among these were the following : the Qedkoystov , a platform concealed by clouds and 
supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mr/xavfj and the Ttpavoc, instruments employed 
to bring a god or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him 
into the skies ; the Auopai, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air ; Bpovruov 
and the Kipawoo-KonETov, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 

2. The number of actors (moKpiTal) in the whole of a play was of course various ; but 
no more than three at once appeared on the stage (jjk>]v?i) in the part appropriated to 
speakers (XoysTov). Although the author of the piece represented was sometimes obliged 
to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of low 
character and loose morals. — In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and 
the sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed; among 
these were the brazen vessels (»)X"«) resembling bells, which were placed in different 
parts of the structure. — In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were con- 
cealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. 
iEschylus (cf. P. V. § 39, 61) introduced the regular mask (Trpouuneiov, persona) ; which, 
ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so 
prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, 
color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and 
condition ; no less than twenty-five classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius 
Pollux ; six for old men ; seven for young men ; three for male slaves ; five for female 
slaves; and four for free women. The tragic, mask often had a great elevation of the head 
and hair (called oy/<oc) to heighten the stature of the actor ; and for the same purpose, the 
tragic actor wore a very thick-soled boot (icodopvo;, t/V?ac). Of comic masks forty-three 
varieties are specified ; nine for old men; ten for young men; seven for male slaves; three 
for old women ; fourteen for young women. The comic mask for the oldest man was 
called namros Trpcoro?. Besides all these there were masks appropriate to the satyric drama. 

Representations of several ancient masks maybe seen in our Plate XLIX. cf. P. IV. § 189. 1. See Scklegel, on the Drama, Lect. 

iii. — Mongez, sur les masques des Anciens, in the Mem. d» Vlnstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. i. 256. vii. 85. — Mongez, 
(on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice), in the Mem. de VInst., C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89.— See 
also § 238. 3. 

3. The Choir (x°P°s) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors; 
yet, by its leader, it often took part in. the dialogue. The Chorus was maintained at 
vast expense ; one source of which was in the dresses and decorations, which were of 
the most splendid kind. See P. V. § 37, and the references \heve given. 

§ 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spec- 
tators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were 
built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In consequence of the 
contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which a 
fee for admission was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at least, at two oholi. But 
under the influence of Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper ma- 
gistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one who 
applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was 
termed dewpuca xpr^ara, and the magistrate, Tafias twv deoipiKwv. The number of specta- 
tors was often very great (cf. P. IV. § 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description 
of their crowding to the theatre. 

Travels of Anacharsis (as cited P. V. § 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also ch. lxx. — Barthelemy, Nombre des pieces qu'on representoient en 
un jour a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxix. 172.— On Greek theatrical rjerformances, cf. P. V. §§ 36-47. — Lond. Quart 
Rev. xii. 119.—/. Proudfit, in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Serj.es, p. 449.— B'ottiger, as cited P. V. § 86. 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 91. After what has been already said (§§ 33, ss.) of the original circum- 
stances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine ourselves now to 
their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. The account of the various 
changes of their constitution and the consequences thereof belongs to history 
rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the 
civil regulations of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking 
those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were dis- 
tinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they had also 
many points of resemblance. 

§ 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39). 
After the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble 
families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth and last (1068 B. C), the 
chief magistrates were the Archons. When these became despotic, Draco 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 177 

(624 B. C.) introduced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by 
their severity. Recourse was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished 
all the laws of Draco, except the one respecting- murder. Solon changed the 
form of government in many points, diminished very much the authority and 
power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries, 
and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing into a mixed and mo- 
derate democracy. 

On the Civil Affairs of the Athenians, cf. G. Postellus, T)e Republica Atheniensium. Lugd. Bat. 1635. 4. — C. P. Levesque, sur la 
Constitution d'Athenes, in Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 asse des Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iv. — K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch der Griech- 
ischen StaatsalterthOmer. In English transl. entitled, Political Antiquities of Greece. Oxf. IS36. 8. An improved edition of the 
original publ. in 1 S36.— Wachsmuth, as cited § 13.— .fiT. D. HUllmann, Staatsrecht d. Alterthums. Coin. 1S20. 8. 

§ 93. Originally the people had been divided into four tribes (<f>iAcu), and 
also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number of boroughs 
or wards (S^ot). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curias (jppa-t- 
pt'at, s^vvj) according- to their consanguinity, and each of the curiae into families 
(yfV??, rpiaxaSfj). But Solon divided the citizens according to their wealth 
into four classes; 1. Tlsv/faxoatofiiBLfivoi, those who gathered from their fields 
in moist and. dry crops, at least 500 [xidcfxvoi ; 2. 'irtTtfi^, those whose grounds 
yielded 300 /j,i8i/xvoc, and who were able to maintain a war-horse {iTirtos rtote- 
(j.L6trfiLos)\ 3. ZsvyL-tat, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) fi£8ifivoi,, 
and who owned the space of one acre or £svyo$; 4. ©jjr'fj, those who had any 
less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the people 
(§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes shared in the burdens and 
expenses of the state, and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from 
them alone the senate (jSo-u^, §' 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted 
of 400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus (§ 108), as he 
gave it jurisdiction of the most important criminal cases. 

§ 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about thirty-four years. 
Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became sole master of the 
state, and notwithstanding all opposition, continued such until his death, 528 
B. C. His two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded him. These were 
soon stripped of their power; Hipparchus being slain by HarmodiuS, who was 
offended on account of his sister (Thuc. vi. 544) and was aided by his friend 
Aristogiton ; and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. After 
this, the constitution received a new form under the influence of Clisthenes. 

The number of the tribes (tyvhai) was now increased to ten. From each of 
these, fifty senators {j5ov%£VTfai) were yearly elected, so that the Senate consisted 
of 500. After this the power of the people was still more increased. Aristides 
effected the abolition of the law of Solon, which excluded from offices the low- 
est of the four classes of citizens. Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes, 
deprived the Areopagus of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many 
important changes in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower 
classes, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, and 
the way was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed. 

§ 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken by Ly- 
sander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the thirty tyrants, 
who were, however, deprived of their authority after three years, by Thrasy- 
bulus, and banished. In their stead, decemviri (dsxaSovzoc) were instituted, 
who likewise abused their power, and were exiled, after the former democracy 
was restored. This form was retained until the death of Alexander the Great, 
when it was overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain 
number of nobles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassander committed 
the republic to a lieutenant; and under Demetrius Poliorcetes, it enjoyed again 
freedom and popular power. With some changes, this state of things con- 
tinued until the time of Sylla, who in the Mithridatic war conquered Athens 
and subjected her to the Romans. The final destruction of the city happened 
towards the end of the fourth century by the hands of Alaric, king of the 
Westgoths. 

§ 96 t . Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. Its circuit was 
about one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. Its topography is given more particularly 
23 



178 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

in the Epitome of Classical Geography (cf. P. I. % 104-116) ; here we shall only name 
some of the principal buildings and works. One part of it was the citadel, which lay 
upon a steep rock ; this at first constituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia, 
and was afterwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the Acropo- 
lis were the UponvXaia, Propylcea, the Uapdevcov, or temple of Minerva with the famous 
statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the joint temple of Neptune Erectheus and Mi- 
nerva Polias. In the other portion (which was called the lower city), the temples of 
Vulcan, Venus Urania, Theseus, Jupiter 01ympius,andthe Pantheon sacred to all the 
gods, were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, the Pee- 
die (cf. P. IV. $ 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with the most magnificent 
paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, built by Pericles, was devoted to musical and 
literary exercises (cf. P. IV. § 235. 3). The name of Ceramicus was given to two 
extensive spaces, one within and the other without the city, the former enriched with 
beautiful edifices, the latter used as a burial ground. There were several market 
places (dyopat), with different names according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia 
also, and the Baths, the Sodium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cyno- 
sarges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the remarkable and interesting 
works which adorned the city of Athens. The three harbors, Piraeus, Munychia, 
and Phalerum, should likewise be mentioned. 

For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XXI. fig. 1 ; in the same Plate, fig. 2, is the temple of 
the Winds; fig. 3, the temple of Theseus. — A view of the Parthenon in its ruins as given by Hob- 
house, is seen in the Plate on page 432. — For ruins of the temple of Minerva connected with that 
of Neptune Erectheus, see the Plate on page 30.— For a plan of Athens, see Plate I. 

§ 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were either 
TtoTtfcVat, free citizens ; t*itoixoL, free commoners, resident aliens or sojourners ,• 
or 8ov"koo, slaves. The first class was the most respectable ; the last, the most 
numerous. The number of resident foreigners, however, was not insignificant. 
The right of citizenship was, in the flourishing times of the republic, a high 
privilege, which was conferred only upon men of honorable descent and dis- 
tinguished merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement of 
six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were those whose 
parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose parents was born there ; 
and those of the latter class held a lower rank, and privileges in some respects 
less than the former. 

1 u. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided into four tribes (cf. § 93) as follows ; 
1. KsKpomg, from his own name ; 2. ' AvtoxBw ; 3. 'A/o-aux; 4. UapaXia. To each of these 
tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards (<%»(), of which there were at 
length 174 in Attica, and which differed from each other in various points of manners 
and customs. The names of the tribes were afterwards changed, and the number in- 
creased to ten (cf. § 94), finally to twelve. 

On the Arjjioi, of Attica, see W. M. Leake, in the Transactions of (he Royal Society of Literature; a full account, with a good 
map. — A complete list of them is given in WachsmuWs Historical Antiquities. 

2 u. The number of citizens, ■noXirai, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040 ; 
and in the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a census taken by his direction, 
B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. 

3. From the census of Demetrius, the whole population of Attica, including aliens 
(cf. § 99), women, children, and slaves (cf. § 99), has been estimated at 500,000. 

On the population of Attica, see BbcWs Public Economy of Athens. — Clinton's Fasti, Appendix. — Amer. Quart. Register, on 
Populousness of Ancient Nations, vol. ix. p. 143. — Sainle Croix, Sur la population de l'Attique, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. 
p. 147.— And Letronne, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 165. 

§ 98. The /xitfoixoi were those foreigners, or persons not natives of Attica, 
who became residents in the city or territory. They took no part in the govern- 
ment, being admitted neither to the assemblies of the people nor to public 
offices, but were subject to all the laws and usages of the land. They were 
obliged to select from the free citizens a patron or guardian (rtpotf-r'a^j), in 
whose name they could manage business and maintain actions in the civil 
courts, and to whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the 
state were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (/xstouxiov) 
was exacted ; ten or twelve drachms for each man ; and six for each woman 
without sons; mothers with sons that paid being free from the tax. Some- 
times exemption from taxation (oW&sca) was conferred upon individuals as a 
reward for meritorious services. Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the 
class of foreign residents. 

The term £6w was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country for a short 
time only, as distinguished from the foreign residents, although it was sometimes applied 



PLATE XXI. 




180 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

to the latter ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who were mutually pledged, 
by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality. 

If a metic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold for a slave. 
Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means of paying it; but 
was redeemed by Demetrius. 

Among the services required of the residents was the carrying of a vessel with water, 
ifyiacpopia, which the married alien women were obliged to perform to the married 
females of Athens in the grand Panathenaic procession ; the daughters of aliens were 
obliged on the same occasion to render to the Athenian maidens the service of carrying 
parasols {(xKia^opia). See § 77. 6. 

Cf. Sainte Croix, Sur les Metceques, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 176. 

§ 99. The slaves (§oi>%oi) were of different sorts, those belonging to the pub- 
lic (Sov'koc c^uotftot), and those belonging to private citizens (oijceVou-). The 
latter were completely in the power of the master, and were often treated with 
great severity. Yet they sometimes purchased freedom by their own earnings, 
or received it, by gift as a reward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at 
liberty, when they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen 
very seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed 
SovTiot. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and miserable 
as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, than in other states 
of Greece, especially in Laced aemon. The slaves of Attica amounted to 
400,000 in the time of Demetrius. 

• The term oiKSTrj; signifies one living in the same house with any onej 6iKov6fxog, signi- 
fies one who oversees one's affairs, and is sometimes applied to designate a particular 
slave, since slaves were sometimes intrusted with the office of steward ; mripsrris, signi- 
fying primarily a rower, and secondarily an attendant, is also sometimes applied to 
slaves. Xen. Mem. ii. 10. 

At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress 
or the cut of their hair ; their coats must be with one sleeve only (erepoudaxaXoi) and the 
hair cut in the servile form (Spi£ dvdpanoddidris). They could not properly bear the names 
of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some foreign or low name. They were 
allowed to bear arms only in extreme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ; 
for common offences they were whipped QxaaTLyidcj) ; for theft or running away they 
were bound to a wheel and beaten («fi rpoxov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to 
grind in the mills ([xv'Xwves) ; sometimes they received, upon their forehead or some 
other part, the brand with hot iron (ariyp.a). In giving testimony in court they were 
also subject to torture (/?ao-aw>?).— Yet at Athens the slaves could bring civil actions 
against their masters and others for violation of chastity and for unlawful severity 
(yPpsajg tttcr\ and aiicias d'ucri). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple 
of Theseus, from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. — : — Slaves carried on 
the whole business of the Athenians ; even the poorer citizens depended on them. 
There was a sale of slaves on the first day of every month by merchants {dv6p<mo£oKd- 
■arjXoi) ; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's stone 
(jrparrip\idos). The price varied according to their abilities. Many were skillful in the 
elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines. 

See Reitemeitr, Geschichte und Zustand der Sclaverey, &c. (History of Slavery and Villanage in Greece.) Berl. 1789.— Cf. 
Athznscus, vi. (cf. P. V. § 123).— Bernhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. — Bill. Repos. and Qicart. Observer, No. xvii. p. 139. 

§ 100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the mode of 
their appointment to office, into three classes, the ztipotovqfoi, the xtypatol, 
and the cUpstfot. The first named were chosen by the whole people raising the 
hand ; the second were appointed by lot by the Thesmothetae in the temple of 
Theseus ; and the last were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the 
tribes and the districts, from among their own number. — The magistrates were 
required, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of their admi- 
nistration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten accountants (xoytctai) and 
ten directors or judges (ev^vvot, called also i^etaatai). 

In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method was to 
put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (mv&Kia), into an urn with 
black and white beans (xvajxoi) ; and those whose tablets were drawn out with white 
beans were elected. 

On the Athenian magistrates, cf. Blanchard, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vii. 51.— Cf. Julius Pollux, Onomasticon. 

§ 101. The most important magistrates were the Jrchons (ap%ovt£$). There 
were usually nine Archons, chosen by lot (x^pw-r'dt.), but subjected to an exa- 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. REVENUES. 181 

mination as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath 
and enter their office. 

1. The examinations of the Archons was two fold; one in the senate called 'Ava- 
Kpic-is, the other in the forum, called AoKifxacxia, before the Heliastce (fjXtaarat § 110). 
Among the points of examination were the following : whether their ancestors for three 
generations had been Athenian citizens ; whether they had a competent estate ; and 
whether they were free from bodily defects (d^Aa?). 

2 u. The first of the nine in rank was styled Archon by way of eminence, h "Apx^v ; 
sometimes 'Apxuv emowixo;, because the year was named from him. He attended to the 
domestic affairs of citizens, decided differences which arose between relatives, had the 
care of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and 
solemnities, and also of theatres. — The second was called King, or archon king, 
cipxtov ,Qaai\evg. To him were assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, 
which were originally performed by kings exclusively ; he was, in general, overseer of 
religious affairs. — The third, named Polemarch, TroXijiapxos, attended to the domestic af- 
fairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same duties in reference to them, 
which the first archon did for the citizens. In the time of the Persian war, he had an 
important share in managing military affairs. — The six remaining archons were called 
Thesmothetoe, (Scapodfrai), and were chiefly occupied with legislative affairs ; they also 
took cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction. 

3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called napefyoi, 
assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to the same 
examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in the same way an 
account {tvOvvr)) of their office. 

§ 102. Another magistracy at Athens was that of the Eleven, oi "EvSeaa, ten 
of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, and the other was their 
secretary (ypap/Aattvs). They were properly overseers of the prisons, and di- 
rected in the execution of capital punishments. In later times they were also 
called vojxo^pv'kaxt^.— These were different from the Phylarchi (^lAap^ot), who 
were originally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards command- 
ers in war. The Demarchi (S^ap^ot) performed similar duties in relation to 
the districts (br^oi). — The A^tap^oc had the care of the public register (%ev- 
xcoua), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and collected fines of those not 
present. They were six in number ; but were aided by the ToIotUc, who were 
a sort of bailiffs or deputy sheriffs, to the amount of 1000. — The ~No{xo$stao 
were also 1000 in number, and were charged with the examination of past 
laws to see if any were injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of 
police. 

Besides the magistrates above named, there were many others connected with the 
treasury, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of justice ; the most 
important of them will be noticed in connection with those topics. There were also 
various other public functionaries, who were not, strictly speaking, magistrates, but 
ought perhaps some of them to be named here. — The 'Pfiropes, orators, were ten in 
number, appointed by lot to plead public causes in the senate and assembly; they were 
sometimes called owriyopoi, and were a different body from the o-vvSikoi, who were ap- 
pointed by the people.— The Upsa^cTs, ambassadors, were chosen usually by the peo- 
ple, sometimes by the senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full power, 
they were called TlpeaPeTg airoKparopss ; generally their power was limited (cf. § 143). 
They were usually attended by heralds (KvpvKes) ; this name however was sometimes 
given to the persons sent on an embassy.— We may also mention the notaries, ypapixa- 
rcTs ; besides the great number employed by the various magistrates, there were three pub- 
licly chosen ; one by the assembly of the people, to recite before them ; and two by 
the senate, one to keep the laws, and the other the records in general. The office was 
not at Athens very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educated slaves, called 
&mooioi (cf. § 99). 

§ 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts : 1. Ti%q, rents from public 
domains and other public property, and duties paid on articles of commerce and 
on certain pursuits and persons; 2. <5opot, tributes, or annual payments exacted 
from allied or subjected cities and states; 3. Ti/.ir/.ia-ta, fines, which all went to 
the public treasury, except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and 
one fifteenth appropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were patrons 
of the city ; 4. At ttovpylat iyxvx%ioi, periodical liturgies, or services, in which in- 
dividuals were required, for a time, to perform certain duties or maintain certain 
public establishments at their own expense. — Besides the ordinary, the neces- 

Q 



182 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

sities of the state sometimes required an extraordinary revenue; and then 
special taxes (Jw^opdO laid upon citizens and residents formed an important 
resource. 

Under the rA/7, or rents, we may include the income from the mines ; the most im- 
portant of which were the silver mines of Laurion ; the ore from these was. termed 
dpyvpTng • they were regarded as a grand source of wealth to Athens. 

See Bockh, on the Mines of Laurion, in his Public Economy. 

Under the <&6poi or tributes, we may include the duty of ten per centum (fear/?, fea- 
Tsvr^piov) imposed on vessels passing from or into the Euxine ; which was exacted at 
Chrysopolis (cf. P. I. § 160), which the Athenians fortified for the purpose. 

Tinder Ttj.uyj.aTa or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (jrpvrave Ta),. which were 
demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court ; these deposits were large 
in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. To the same head must be 
referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (cVidrrpara). 

Under the Liturgies (kzirovpyiai) were included chiefly three, xopriyia, yvp.vaatapx'ia, and 
earlaatg. Those, who rendered the first named service, (xopriyoi,) were required to pay 
the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the public festivals and theatrical exhi- 
bitions (cf. § 89. 3). Those to whom the second was assigned were obliged to furnish 
the oil and the various necessaries for the wrestlers and other combatants in the public 
games. In the third service mentioned, certain persons {eandropeg t&v cpv\wv) provided 
entertainment or banquets, on the public festivals, for a whole tribe. — These services 
were always assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the time of Demosthenes there 
was the following system : each of the ten tribes pointed out- 120 of the wealthiest citi- 
zens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were divided into two portions according 
to their wealth, the navv likovowi and the n-nov -Kkofoioi ; these two parts were each formed 
into ten classes or companies, called cvixp.opixi ; from the ten avpjjiopiai of the more 
wealthy, 300 of the wealthiest men were selected, who were required to furnish the 
republic with the necessary supplies of money and with the rest of the 1200 to perform all 
extraordinary duties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could name a person more wealthy 
than himself, he was excused. The residents {p-hoimi) sometimes performed these 
services. — Besides the ordinary \arovpyiai above mentioned, there were some extraordi- 
nary ; particularly two in a time of war, rpinpapx'ia and ela^opa. The rpifipapxoi were 
obliged to provide necessaries for the fleet and building of ships. The Eio-cpipovrsg were 

required to contribute money according to their ability for different purposes. The 

manner in which they performed such 01 these services as were assigned to them, and 
the degree of expense and splendor to which they went, became sometimes a subject 
of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians. 

On the whole subject of the Athenian revenues and expenditures, see Aug. BocWs Staatshaushaltung der Athener. Mit 21 In- 
schriften. Bed. 1817. 2 vols. 8. Eng. Transl. Public Economy of Athens. Lond, 1828.— Cf. Bancroft's Heeren, ch. viii.— Mit- 
ford, ch. xxi. sect. l.—Xenophon, On the Revenues of Attica (cf. P. V. § 186. 2). 

On the Trierarchy, BocWs Urkunden (lber das Seewesen des Attischen Staates. Berl. 1840. 

§ 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged to the peo- 
ple, and their administration and management to the senate. But a particular 
officer was at the head of the treasury, called tfo^uaj tfijs xowijj rtposoSou, be- 
cause he had charge of the public revenue, and also ta/xuag tq$ Stotxjjtfscoj, as 
having charge likewise of the public expenditures. He was chosen by the 
people (^fiporWa) for four years. 

1 u. There were many subordinate officers in the department of finance. One class 
consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous ar- 
rangements. To this class belonged the naArjrai, ten in number, one from each tribe, 
having the care of whatever the state sold or leased ; the npaKTopes, who received all 
fines imposed ; the eniypacpstg, who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the diaypwpelc, 
who enrolled the names of families and individuals, and assessed to them their part in 
raising an extraordinary revenue ; the ikXoya?, who collected the taxes, duties, rents, 
&c. Te\tivai were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public 
lands or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers. — A second class con- 
sisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed them for 
public uses. Of this class were the cm-ofe-cu, ten in number, chosen by lot ; and the 
rapiai twv lepujv xpw°- TOi ' J i who had the care of the treasures in the temples (§ 28). — Such 
officers as were employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts of the de- 
partment may be considered as a third class, including the ypapiparelg, clerks, and wo- 
ypap.jxar£~is, under-clerks, and the dvriypacpeTc , checking -clerks or auditors. Among the latter 
may be named particularly the avnypaipevg t% dioiKfiaeug, controller of the expenditure. 

2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. 
The public edifices and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be 
preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended many thousands of 
talents upon works of architecture in Athens. The festivals were another source 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. AMPHICTYONS. 183 

of expense ; when we consider their number, and think of the cost of the sacrificial 
victims and offerings, the banquets, the processions (to/wcii), the theatrical, musical, and 
gymnastic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that 
immense sums must have been expended in maintaining them. — Much was expended 
also in distributions or donations to the populace (oiavopal, SiaSoaeig) ; the most important 
expenditure in this way was by the iiwfioXia, or distribution of the oboli to each poor 
citizen as theoric money (SewpiKa, cf. § 90). — Means of support for poor and disabled 
citizens (dtivvaroi), and also for children whose fathers had fallen in battle, were likewise 
furnished from the public treasury, and formed another item of expense. — In addition 
to these, we must mention the expenses of the government, including the salaries of all 
the various magistrates and officers of different grades, and the wages of the senators 
(/ti<T0dj ($ov\£vtik6s), and of those who attended the assembly {p-iaQdg EKKXrjmcurriKds). — The 
support of the army and navy required also large sums of money even in time of peace. 
In time of war, the expenses, not only of this class, but of many others also, must 

have been greatly increased. It may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate 

of the amount of these various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious 
metals in ancient and modern times must hot be overlooked here, as they were, at least, 
three times as valuable then as now. 

§ 105. Among the public assemblies of the Greeks, which took into consi- 
deration the affairs of the whole state, the council of the Amphictyons (isvvoSog 
Afifyixtvovuv, A/xfpixtvovia) is especially worthy of notice. According- to com- 
mon opinion, it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion ; accord- 
ing 1 to some, by Acrisius, king of Argos. The twelve people or states united in 
this council {to tw t E%%r l vmv GweSpvov) used to meet by their delegates, two 
from each city ordinarily, at Thermopylae; from this circumstance the dele- 
gates were called iritfiotydpai, and the council itself Uv'Kaia. Sometimes they 
met at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring and autumn, 
unless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of the council was to 
adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, and the delegates had 
full power to make salutary changes and regulations. Some very important 
disputes, as e. g. between the Plataeans and Lacedaemonians, and between the 
Thebans and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued 
to some time in the first century after Christ. 

Some writers have taken a different view of the origin and design of this council. 
They assert that the Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about 
or near Delphi, or some other place ; diMpiKrvovss being nearly equivalent to djityiKTiovts ; 
and that the assembly was originally held simply for the purpose of mutual gratifica- 
tion and religious festivity, having no precisely definite common object, and being dif- 
ferent from a confederation for mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations. 

This is the view ai Hermann, in his Lehrbuch, cited § 92.— Similar is that of Saint e Croix, Des Anciens Gouvernemens Federa- 
tifs. Par. 1799. — The political character and design of the council is maintained by F. W. Tittmann, Ueber den Bund der Amphic- 
tyonen. Bert. 1812. 8.— Cf. also Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. iii. sect. Z.—Thirluiall, Hist, of Greece, c. x. xliii.— De Valois, Sur 
les Amphictyons, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. &c. vol. iii p. 191 ■ and v. p. 405.— T. Leland, Discourse pref. to his Life of 
Philip of Macedon. 

§ 106. Assemblies of the people {Ixx^iqciai) were very frequent at Athens, and 
had an important influence. In these the acts of the senate were canvassed, 
laws were proposed and approved or rejected, magistrates appointed, war de- 
clared, and the like. The place where they met was either the market-place 
(dyopa), or a broad space near the .mountain called the Pnyx (IIvv|), or the 
theatre of Bacchus. The ordinary assemblies (ixxhyaiat xvplai) were held 
monthly on established days ; the extraordinary (ixxhyaiat. avyxhqtot,) were 
called on pressing and important emergencies. 

1 u. These meetings were managed and conducted by the U^rdvetg, the UpoeSpoi, and 
the 'Eirurrdrng. Before entering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a young pig, was 
offered. Then the herald ordered silence, offered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on 
the direction of the Upoefyoi, the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and those 
above fifty years of age were first invited to speak; after which any one above thirty, 
of fair character had the liberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been 
discussed in the senate, whose decision upon it (Trpo/JotJAei^a, ip^ta-pa njs 0ov\r]g) received 
its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called emphatically a 
decree, i//r/<p«r/*a. Often, however, a decision of the senate without the confirmation of 
the assembly was in force for a year ; at least it was so in those cases in which, in 
order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity. 

2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (xuporovia), and sometimes by a 
mode of balloting in which beans (itvapoi) and stones O/^^oi) were cast into vessels pre- 



184 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



pared for the purpose (miioi). — When the business was completed, the ETpurai/aj dismissed 
the assembly. 

See G. F. Schbmann, De Comitiis Atheniensium, lib. iii. Gryphisw. 1819. 8.—R. Whiston, On the Athenian Assemblies, in 
Smith's Did. of Antiq. p. 361.— Aristophanes, in his EKKXTjcnd^ova-ai. 

§ 107. The senate or higher council (37 ava fiovhri) consisted, according to the 
arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500; and was therefore styled the senate or 
council of the 500 (57 fiovXri t£v Ttevtaxoolw). In earlier times it consisted of 
400, and in later of 600 members. 

1 u. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready 
division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these divisions, containing 50 
members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation 
decided by lot : and the members of the division having this charge at any one period 
was called Upvravsis for the time, and the period itself was called lipvraveia. The 50 
TlpvTaveis were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to 
their business in rotation, each for a period of 7 days, and the members were called 
UpoeSpoi for that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding 
officers. From the Up6e6poL was elected the 'Emcr&Trig, who was at their head, and of 
course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a single day.— It was the 
business of the Yipvraveig to assemble the senate, and propose the subjects of delibera- 
tion. They also conducted the meetings of the people, in which however they only 
presided in connection with nine UpoeSpoi, who were chosen out of the other divisions 
of the senate and had an 'Emo-Tarm at their head. The ITpurara? had a common hall, 
where they passed most of their time daily, called the Frytaneum (UpvTavsTov), near the 
senate-house (BovXeiov, and BovXsvTfipwv). 

2 u. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which the 
votes were taken. They received a drachma {hpaxp-n) per day for every day's attend- 
ance. The power of the senate was very great. 

3. The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days consi- 
dered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was called the sena- 
torial oath (top J3ov\zvTiKdv bpKov) to do nothing contrary to the laws. In voting, they 
cast each a black or white bean into the box or urn (icdSog, KaSiamg) prepared for the 
purpose ; if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution 
was affirmed ; otherwise rejected. 

§ 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than the Areopa- 
gus at Athens. Its name, D Apsi6rtayo$, signifies Hill of Mars, and was derived 
from the circumstance, that the court was held on a hill so called, near the cita- 
del. Others derive the name from the tradition, that the god Mars was the first 
criminal tried before this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain, 
but was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but en- 
larged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body ('ApstorfoytVcu) 
were originally the most upright and judicious citizens of every condition, but 
after the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Archons. 
Their office was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination, 
poisoning, arson, and offences against religion, came before this court, which 
inflicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on the last 
three days of each month : but afterwards they were more frequent, and at last 
daily ; they were always in the open air, and at night. 

1 u. The sitting was opened with a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the 
accused took an oath with direful imprecations. Then, either personally or by attor- 
neys, they urged their cause ; but no ornaments of rhetoric, no attempts to move the 
passions, were ever allowed. After this the judges gave their decision by means of 
white or black stones. As the court always sat in the dark, the white pebbles were 
distinguished by holes bored in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive 
the white stones, which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to. re- 
ceive the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen- 
tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and purity of this 
tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the general corruption 
of morals. 

2. In their oath {diwjiooia) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the Furies (<k/ij/<u Seal). 
In the trial they were placed upon what were called the silver stones (dpyvpovg), the 
plantiff on that of Injury 0>@pig), and the defendant on that of Impudence (dvaifeia), or 
of Innocence (dvair(a). — The brazen urn stood in front of the other, and was called 6 
ep-poaOev ; also 6 xvpw;, because votes cast into it declared the accusation valid ; and 
b Zavarov, as it decreed death. The wooden was termed b bmcu, 6 axvpog, or b e\iov. 

Respecting the pebbles used in decisions, cf. Anthem's Note to Potter, p. 71. On the Areopagus and the other courts of Athens, 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN COURTS. 185 

see A. W. ffeffter, Die Athenlische Gerichtsverfassuns;. Coin, 1822. 8.— M. H. E. Meir, Der Attische Process. Vier BUcher. 
HaUe, 1821. 8—Mbi Canaye, L 'Areopagus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 174. 

§ 109. The 'Efyttcu were also persons of distinguished merit, who constituted 
the court called 'Exi TloXha§ic> from the statue of Minerva (said by some to 
have been brought from Troy) in the temple, where it was held. Its origin is 
ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he 
did not first institute it, certainly modified it anew. The judges were fifty-one, 
selected from noble families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all 
over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court; but referred 
to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leaving to the 'E^tVou juris- 
diction only over homicide, injuries followed by death, and the like. 

There were three other less important courts belonging to the class which had 
cognizance of actions concerning blood (ijil tuv tyovixiov). — The court 'Ertt 
A??4hv<,'q was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of 
cases where the defendants confessed the fact but pleaded some justification. — 
The court 'Ev Ti_pvtaveic> was held at the Prytaneum (cf. § 107) and investi- 
gated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had 
escaped. — The court 3 Ev Qpmt'toi was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, 
and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — 
In all these courts the 'Efye-t ai presided and pronounced the sentence. 

The magistrates called <J>v\o6acn\£Tc are said to have had some duty in the court iv YlpvTaveUi ; 
especially in the cases termed ai twv dipvxuv Sixai, in which the instruments of homicide were 
subjected to trial. In the earliest times there were four of these magistrates; one perhaps from 
each of the four tribes. 

§ 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having 
jurisdiction only in civil cases (Jrtl tw fyjAotixuv), of which there were six. 
The most important was the l H?uou,'a. Its name was either from a?u'a, multi- 
tude, on account of the throng attending it, or from rjuoc;, sun, on account of its 
being held in the open air. The number of its judges (rhiaatcu Sixaa-tcu) was 
not always the same ; the whole number amounted to 6000, who were chosen for 
one year by lot; out of these were taken the number requisite in each particular 
trial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000 
were assembled ; the more usual number was 200 or 500. It was the province 
of the Ssc/Ao&tcu (§ 101) to introduce the action into court (Jicdyav hix'qv h$ 
re hix(x6tr^ov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate 
and decide the case. 

1 u. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction (-apaypa<pfi) or request a delay 
(v-ofiojia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parties deposited 
a sum of money as security (TrpvTaveTa), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In 
doing this they were limited to a definite time, measured by a water-clock (xXsipvdpa). 
The decision was given in the same way as in the Areopagus (§ 108) ; and the de- 
fendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to the "Evoexa (§ 102), and in 
case of fine, to the YIpdKrop£$ or 'E«Xoy£r ? ($ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was 
cast into prison ; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- 
ment also, fell upon his son. 

2. The bailiff or deputy employed to summon (TrpocrKaXcXaOai) the defendant before the 
Thesmothetee, or witnesses before the court, was termed KMrtop ; sometimes one or 
two of the witnesses whose names were indorsed upon the declaration (A>?£'s, eyxXriixa), 
together with the plaintiff, were the summoners (/cA^rf^). The oath of the plaintiff 
before the opening of the trial was called irpooyixoaia ; that of the defendant, &vTix>noaia ; 
a name for both was diw/xoata. Door-keepers (xiyKXiSec) were appointed by a magistrate 
to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security money was, as has been 
hinted (§ 103), in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it 
was a drachm, and called -apaa-haiq ; the deposit made by one who sued for goods 
confiscated by the state, or for inheritances of a certain kind, was termed irapaKara^o^. 
If the plaintiff {Slcokwv) failed of proving the indictment (diria) against the defendant 
»'), he paid a fine called ar60£\ia. While the action 03ta>£(j) was proceeding or was 
in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (£kkcioO<xl) in one 
of the most public places of the city. The witnesses Qxaprvpsc) were all put under a 
solemn oath, which they took together at the altar erected in the court-room. Their 
testimony was called for by the advocates {rrwhyopoi) as they wanted it in proceeding 
with their pleas. 1 

The office of the judges, iiKaa-ai, resembled that of our jurymen -, 2 they were 
usually paid three oboli a day. They sat upon wooden benches, which were covered 
24 Q2 



186 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

with rugs (;4>ia9ia). In addressing them the advocates stood upon elevations called 
GfifxaTa. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were many 
in Athens who seem to have made it their business to discover grounds of accusation 
against the wealthy. These men gained the name of avKoipavrai, a term which was 
first applied to such as prosecuted persons that exported figs (d-rd rov ovkcl <p<xiveiv), a law 
prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when there was a great 
scarcity of that fruit. 3 

S See Sir W. Jones's Preface to Isseus (cf. P. V. § 104. 3). 3 See /. Pettingal, Enquiry into the Practice and Use of Juries among 

the Greeks and Romans. Lond. 1769. 4. 3 Cf. Mitjord, Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxi. sect. 1. 

3. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The 
five other civil courts besides the Heliosa were those called n.apa/3v<rrov, Tpiywov, To 
Kaivov, To «ri Avkov, and To Mnrixov. 
Respecting these courts, see Meier, as cited § 108. 2.—Schomann, Ant. Jur. Publ. Grasc— Platner, Process und Klagen. 

§ 111. In addition to the ten public courts, there was also a judicial body, 
called 6t TfsGaapdxovta, consisting of forty persons chosen by lot, who held their 
courts successively in the several districts of Attica having cognizance of cases 
where the sum or value at stake did not exceed ten drachmas. 

There was likewise a body of Arbitrators, Aiartijtai, consisting of 440 aged 
men, forty-four from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to 
settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, but subject to appeal. 
These were called x%iqp^tol, being chosen by lot. — Disputing parties were 
allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called SiaTJhaxtqpLot, 
or xat' srtLtportriv Akut^o*. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior 
courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators. 

The number of public arbitrators or Siairrirai icXripuroi stated above is drawn from a passage 
in Ulpian upon Demosthenes ; some writers have proposed a different reading of the passage so 
as to make the whole number but forty, four from each tribe. — The private arbitrators were 
sometimes termed Siarr/rai aipsroi. 

Class. Joum. xxxix. 350.— M. H. Hudwalcker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Diateten in Athen, und den Process vor demselben. 
Jena, 1812. 

§ 112. Actions or suits were divided into two classes; public {hixai Sijfwoiat, 
xaT^yoptat), such as concerned the whole state; and private (Stxat, i&uxt, and 
8ixai, simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the 
following : Tpa^/j, an action for the highest crimes, ase. g. murder ($6Voj), poison 
(tydppaxov), arson (Ttvpxaca), sacrilege (tspocntfaa), and many others esteemed 
less heinous ; «£a<yt£, an action for the crime of embezzling or in some way 
squandering public property ; ""EvSsiltj, an action against persons usurping 
prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing trial although confessing guilt; 
'Artaycoyj), an action against a criminal taken in the act ; 'Er^y^tftj, against a 
criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate; 'AvSpohrj^ia, 
against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur- 
dered person to seize three • persons connected with the concealing party and 
retain them until further satisfaction; "EnjayyfTaa, an action for a public 
offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against the AtaxT^tfat when 
one was dissatisfied with their decisions. — Actions belonging to the class called 
private were far more numerous, and were named according to their various 
occasions. 

Some of the public actions included under the general denomination of ypa§f\, and 
not named above, were the following : rpavpia eK-npovoias, a wound given by design ; 0ov- 
Kevins, conspiracy ; da-s/3eia, impiety ; -rrpodoaia, treachery ; desertion, whether from the 
army, Xenroarpanov, or the fleet, Xemovavrio*, or from a particular station, \enrora%iov ; fri- 
volous prosecution, avKocpavria ; bribery both against the giver, hKa.Gp.ds, and against the 
receiver, dupoSoxia. 

Some of the private actions or suits were the following: Kaxnyopias 6'ucri, an action of 
slander ; xphvs dun?, an action for usury ; diKiag SIko, an action of battery ; /?Ad/?>7j, of 
trespass ; kAothI?, of theft ; ipevdopapropiov, for perjury. 

§ 113. The kinds of punishment were various, according to the nature and 
degree of the offence for which they were inflicted. Of those not capital, the 
following were the principal : (1) Ti/x^/xaifa, pecuniary fine, called also Zqfiia; 
this was sometimes aggravated by corporeal punishment : (2) 'Ati/xia, disgrace, 
which was of three kinds ; first, the loss of some privilege but not of posses- 
sions ; second, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property;- 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PUNISHMENTS. REWARDS. 187 

third, the loss of all privileges civil and sacred, both by the criminal himself 
and his whole posterity for ever: (3) Aovteia, slavery,- this, however, by So- 
lon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners, and such as had 
been disgraced {atifiot,) : (4) XtLyixa-ta, brand-marks, by a hot iron on the 
forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway slaves or freedmen: (5) 2r-^, 
in which the name of the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar, 
exposed to public view : (6) Ae <5,u6$, bonds ; of which there were several kinds ; 
as the xvfycov (also xhoioi), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and 
neck; the %otv^, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast; 
the 6avi$, a piece of wood to which the offender was bound as to a pillory ; and 
the tpo%b$, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured : 
(7) ^vyrj, azifyvyla, banishment, with confiscation of goods. 

Banishment is said to have been preferred by the Greek courts to imprisonment, on account 
of the expense occasioned by the latter. Tiie prison at Athens was termed SeanMrfipiov, and by 
euphemism, oiKrijia. Prisons in different regions were called by different names : in Boeotia, 
there was the ' Avayxaiov ; at Sparta, the KedSag ; at Cyprus, the Kepa/xos ; at Corinth, the Kw j ; 
at Samos, the Topyvpa. 

§ 114. The Ostracism, datpaxiafjibs, was not, properly speaking, a judicial 
punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such persons as were thought 
to be dangerous to the state. The votes were given by shells, batpaxa', each 
man marked upon his batpaxov the name of the person he would banish ; if 
the same name was upon the majority of 6000 shells, the person was sentenced 
to banishment. The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under 
this sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a 
similar custom among them. The Syracusan punishment was called ILetaUG- 
jitoj, because the name was written on leaves, 7ie-ta%a. 

The ostracism is said by some to have been instituted by Hippias, son of Hipparchus ; others 
say by Clisthenes, B. C. about 510, who was first banished by it. It continued about one hun- 
dred years; it was abolished B. C. about 412, and because it was then degraded by being em- 
ployed on a very contemptible person by the name of Hyperbolus. Among the illustrious Athe- 
nians who were driven from the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides, 
Cimon, and Aristides. 

Geinoz, L'Ostracism, in the Mem. dt VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145. 

§ 115. The punishment of death, (davatos, was inflicted in several modes; as 
by the sword, Hl$o$, beheading ; by the rope, Bpo^oj, strangling or hanging; by 
poison, 3>dp/xaxov, drinking hemlock (xu>velov) usually; by the precipice, 
Kpr u urbs, casting from a rock or height ; by the KatartovtMiJLbs, drowning. 

Other modes of inflicting death were, by the Uravpog, crucifying, a mode used by 
the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvjxirava, or beating, 
in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, BapaOpov, which 
was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also "Opvyna) ; by 

stoni?ig, At8o,8o\ia; and by burning, Uvp. The punishment of death could not be 

lawfully inflicted upon any citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley- 
(;', -apaXog Tpinpm) which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. 

§ 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons. 
Among these, were the following; (1) Uposhplu, the front or first seat, in the 
theatres, at the festivals and on all public occasions ; (2) 'Etjcwv, a statue, 
erected in a public place ; (3) Xtttyuvov, crowns, conferred by the senate, or the 
people, or by particular tribes and boroughs upon their own members ; these 
were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) 'Atsteta, ex- 
emptionfrom taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the 
contributions required for war and for the navy; (5) XtV^tft? iv Jlpytavsloi, 
entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally limited to a 
single day; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some (adactov) ; 
it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole 
families, and was viewed as a high distinction. After the death of such as 
had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some 
measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty 
in the better times of the republic, but became quite common afterwards, and 
lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. 

§ 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of their 
laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed to Ceres and 



188 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Triptolemus (P. II. § 61). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes, and 
Demetrius Phalereus, were the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted 
by the Athenians. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with 
the changing- circumstances of the state. It was commonly the province of the 
npvtdvscs to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called 
either a decree, <^r,q>L6/Aa, when it had only some specific application, or law, 
j'OjUo?, when its obligation was universal and unchanging. An ordinance of 
Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or 
additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood 
(cf. P. IV. § 53). 

1. The term vdpag designates what may be called a constitutional law, or established 
principle, as distinguished from a particular enactment ; thus it would be applied e. g. 
to the laws of Draco and Solon, although those of Draco were commonly called 
Bsffpdi, in distinction from those of Solon called v6p.oi. The term vo/xog is also sometimes 
used in the sense of Bkfug, a natural right or social usage or fixed custom. 

2. If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to the TIpvTdveig, who brought it 
before the senate 0ov\ri) ; if the senate approved, it was called a Upo/3ov\£Vjia ; it was 
written by the Upvrdveis upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues of the 
'E-covvjxoi, some days before the meeting of the assembly (eKKXrjtrla) ; from this circum- 
stance, it was also called T7p6ypapip.a. 

It will not comport with the limits of this sketch to detail particular Athenian laws.— These may be found in Sam. Petit, Leges 
Attica? (cf. P. V. § 55. 3), and in the work entitled Jurisprudenlia Romana et Attica, T. iii.— Comp. Jo. Meursii Themis Attica. 

L. B. 1624. 4.— See also Potter's Archasologia Graeca, bk. i. ch. xxvi, The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally are 

exhibited by Kopke in NitscWs Beschreibung, &c. cited § 13. 

§ 118. Next to Athens, Lacedaemon was the most flourishing of the Grecian 
states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be briefly noticed (cf. § 40). 
The province in which this city lay bore the same name, but was called also 
Lelegia, (Ebalia, Laconia or Laconica, and was the largest part of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. The city of Lacedaemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken 
plain, on the river Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction 
of Lycurgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its 
edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just idea of the 
power and resources of the state. 

On the civil constiiution of this state, we may refer to /. K. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Aufklarung der Geschichte und 
Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800-5. 3 vols. 8.—Nilseh, Beschreibung, &c. as cited § 13.— Milller, History and Antiquities of 
the Doric Race. Transl. by Tufnell and Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8.— W. Drummond, Review of the Governments of Sparta 
and Athens.— C. P. Levesque, Sur la Constitution de Sparta, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e des Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iii. 

On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see P. I. §§ 126-129.— A view of the modern village Mistra, near its site, is given in the 
Plate on page 37. 

§ 119. In Lacedaemon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had received 
the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, and such as had 
acquired them personally. They were together divided into six tribes, of which 
that of the Heraclidae was the first. Each of these was again subdivided into 
five classes, called wj3at, making thirty in all. The presidents or leaders of 
these were called Tspoaxifav. 

1. The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied with 
all the Spartan discipline, were called the op.0101, or equals; while the other class were 
termed virojxzioveg, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of freedmen, and all such 
as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline. 

C. F. Hermann, De conditione atque origine eorum qui Homcei ap. Laced, appellati sunt. Marb. 1832. 4.— Same author, De 
causis turbatiE apud Lacedasmonios agrorurn aqualitatis. Marb. 1834. 

2. The division into six tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some 
state five as the number, not considering the Heraclidce as a separate tribe. The 
others were the Atp-vdrai, so called from their residing near the marsh or morass (Xfpj?) 
on the north side of the city; the Kwomvpstg, so called from their vicinity to a branch 
of mount T ay getus termed Kwoaovpa (dog's tail) on account of its figure ; the Uiravd- 
rai ; the MeaaodraL ; and the AiysXcai, who received this name because they resided near 

the tomb of iEgeus, Aiysvg. Mullet asserts 1 , that in every Doric state there we're 

three tribes, 'YAXac, TlaijL([>v\oi, and Av/xavdrai or Av/xavsg ; or the Hyllean, Dymanatan, 
and Pamphylian ; and says, we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of any other 
than these genuine Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into ten <l)0ai, 
and adds, that two and probably more, yet not all, of the uffai of the Hyllean tribe 
must have been Heraclidce. Each of the &V?cu is said to have contained ten rpiaxaSts, 
which were communities comprising thirty families. — There was another division of 
the Spartans, into six p.6pai consisting only of such 2 as were of a proper age for mili- 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN MAGISTRATES. 189 

tary service. — A subdivision of tribes into (ppa-piai, or yevn, or rphrvts, is also mentioned 
as having prevailed 3 in various places. 

i See MUllcr, Hist, and Antiq. as cited § 118. vol. ii. p. 76-80. 2 Cf. Robinson, Archseol. Graec. 3 Wachsmuth, Histor. 

Ant. of Greece. 

§ 120. It is known that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth of their 
children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vigor and soundness of 
constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the presidents of the w|3ot, or 
clans, whether they were suitable to be preserved and raised ; a regulation 
designed to prevent a population of weak and sickly citizens. The education 
of the children was treated with the greatest care. All the citizens not only 
had equal rights, but also a community of goods and privileges. The lands 
were, by the laws of Lycurgus, equally apportioned among them. 

As soon as~a child was born, it .was carried to a place called Lesche (Aeaxi) to be 
examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having an imperfect 
frame or weak constitution, it was cast into a gulf, called, 'Anodkrai, near mount Tay- 
getus. • If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was taken 
back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear placed near it. The 
whole education was intrusted to the parent until the child reached the age of seven ; 
then the regular public education (dycoyij) commenced. The boys at this age were in- 
rolled in the classes termed Agelce (dye\ai or /3ovai, herds) ; such as refused this lost 
the rights of citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ; 
the other sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the master 
(riauJcwd/i/oj). The discipline was more strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen 
they were called cikvvai. At eighteen they entered the classes termed l^n&oi, and 
about two years after received the appellation of eipsves or ipeves, and were admitted to 
the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as men, e^Poi, and were allowed to 
undertake public offices. 

Cf. MUller, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 313. 

§ 121. The slaves among the Lacedaemonians were treated with great cruelty 
(cf. § 99). There appears to have been but one class, viz. the Helots ("Efaute j), 
who according to the common account were derived from the maritime town 
Helos ("Etioj) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name as derived 
from the verb efcw, and signifying prisoners. The unhappy Messenians taken 
in the second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots. 

1 u. The Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most laborious 
and dangerous services in war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even 
to the murderous attack of the young Spartans, especially in the custom termed 
KpviTTeia, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded subjects. Yet 
some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, obtained liberty and citizen- 
ship, on occasion of receiving which they were crowned with garlands and led about 
the temples. They then were called tnevvaKm, or d^trai, or vEoSa/jiaiSeis. The last epi- 
thet seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights than the common 
freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-born. The number of slaves in 
this state was very large. 

2. The dfsrdi were a class released probably from all service ; the epvxTripzs were 
slaves employed only in war ; the fccnrooiovavrai served on board the fleet ; the poQcovts , 
were domestic slaves brought up with the young Spartans and then emancipated. 

3. There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Lacedamion, who al- 
though not slaves were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spartans. They were 
the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent state ; they 
were called Periaeci (IleploiKoi). They were engaged in the navy and in the army 
along with Spartan citizens, and sometimes were intrusted with offices : at the battle 
of Platsea there were 10,000 men of this class. 

Respecting the Periceci and the Helots, see MUller, vol. ii. p. 17, 30.— Cappcronkn, Sur l'esclavage des Hilotes, in the Mtm. Acad. 
Inscr. xxiii. 271. 

§ 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders (ap^aysVcu), 
who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidse, and must possess an 
unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the full regal authority (rta^- 
f3a.tfO.sta), but a power limited by the laws, to which they were accustomed 
every month to swear obedience. In war their power was greatest. They had 
also the oversight of the worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the 
office of priests. 

In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and propose the 
subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any question. In war the 



190 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Spartan kings had unlimited command [arpanqyog avroKparup), and could even put to 
death without trial (si> x^pos v6m). They are said also to have had in time of war espe- 
cially a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths (bnrsTs) ; 
from this number five were annually selected and employed for one year, under the 
name of dyaOozpyoi, in missions to other states. Many dissensions grew out of the 
double monarchy (Siapxh). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. Mutter, vol. ii. 
p. 106. 

§ 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 28 men, of blameless character, and 
upwards of GO years old, which was called yzpovolu, or yspcwia. The members 
had an equal right of voting with the two kings, and rendered no account of the 
manner of discharging their office. — There were also five Ephori (t^opot), who had 
an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the 
rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the 
people, without reference to condition. — The- Bs tSuxtot were a class of offi- 
cers, who were placed over the ^jSoc, between the ages of 18 and 20. 

The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called iaorvpawog, and were not required to 
give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for one year. 
Their tribunal (kfyopeiov) was in the forum. — The BetSiaToi were five in number, with a 
sixth as their irpeaPvs. They had the inspection of the gymnastic exercises, called 
7r\aravioTa, because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their pro- 
vince to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place of 
council also in the forum. The common name for the council-halls of these and other 
magistrates was dpxeta. 

§ 124. The Spartans had other magistrates ; as the 'Nopofyv'kuxes, who saw 
that the laws were maintained and executed ; the Ap/ioavvov, to whom was en- 
trusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct 
their exercises ; the "Eurte ?uapo&, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies 
of the people, and attended in general to the police of the forum or market; the 
Ili^ot, four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles ; 
the Upo^evoi, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the re- 
ception of strangers ; the Ilpoo^xot, who had the care of the young kings as 
tutors; the Haihovopoi, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys put 
under their care at the age of 7 ; the 'Appotstai, who were a sort of sheriffs in 
the city and province; the Uohipapzoi, who under the kings superintended the 
affairs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; the 
'irtrtaypsVat, three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen. 

§ 125. The assemblies (ixxXqaiai) of the people were similar to those at 
Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met; in others there 
were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia ; 
in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs of common interest 
and importance to the whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the 
power of convening the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, 
who also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice (jSpoy 
xal ov ^<j>9), and the majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by a 
subsequent division and counting of the two parties. 

The assembly composed only of the citizens of Sparta was called [Mcpa ewcX>?<na, and 
usually met once every month. Every citizen Capable of bearing arms might attend, 
and, if above the age of thirty, might speak. The meetings were originally in the 
open air, but at a later period were held in an edifice, called cklos, erected for the pur- 
pose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, iKKXriaia. It 
consisted of the kings, the senators, the magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia. 

§ 126. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common 
meals and termed avtiavtla, ^StT'ta, and ^tTuVta, was designed for the purpose 
of speaking upon matters of public importance. 

In this assembly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain 
halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member 
could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the 
same. Every member contributed to the provisions from his own stores ; a specified 
quantity of barley meal or cakes (//a£ai), wine, cheese, and figs, and a small sum of 
money for meat, was expected from each. A close union was formed between those 
of the same table. The regular meal was termed ccIkaov ; after this was a dessert called 
tirdiKMv. The men only were admitted; small children were allowed to sit on stools 
near their fathers and receive a half- share without vegetables (d/?a///?<k£wra) ; the youth 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. LAWS OF CRETE. 191 

and boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard 
oak. The chief dish was the black broth (u&ac. Cw/^os). 1 The Spartans had also another 
kind of solemn feast, called mms, to which foreigners and boys were admitted along 
with the citizens. 2 

i The reader may be amused by the following passage from Sir Htnry Blount, who traveled in Turkey, in 1634. " The Turks 
have a drink called c.auphe, made of a berry as big as a small bean, dried in a furnace and beat to powder, of a sooty color, in 
taste a little bitterish, that they sethe and drink, hot as may be endured ; it is good at all hours of the day, but especially morning and 
evening, when to that purpose they entertain themselves two or three hours in cauphe-houses, which in Turkey abound more than 
inns and ale houses with us. It is thought to he the. old black broth used so much by the Lacedemonians. It drieth ill humours in 
the stomach, comforteth the brain, never causeth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a harmless entertainment of good fellow, 
ship." 2 Robinson's Archaeol. Graec. p. 159.— Cf. MUller, ii. 289. 

§ 127. Judicial actions were very summary among the Spartans. Eloquence 
found no place in them; no advocates were employed; every one was obliged 
to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the 
kings, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deci- 
sion of a certain class of questions. The most important questions, and particu- 
larly all of a capital nature, belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- 
ties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. 

Cf. Robinson, bk. ii. ch. xxii.— On the authority of the Ephori, MUller, bk. iii. ch. vii. ; and bk. iii. ch. ii. § 2, on the Spartan 
Courts. 

§ 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens. 

The most common mode of inflicting death was by strangling or suffocation 

Stealing was punished not so much for the theft committed, as for the want of 
shrewdness and dexterity betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to be 
detected. 

1. Strangling was effected by means of a rope (fipoxog, Ppoyxog) ; it was always done 
in the night and in a room 1 in the public prison called Aekus. Death was also inflicted 
by casting the malefactor into the pit 2 called Kaidnag ; this was always done likewise 
by night. Anstomenes the Messenian was cast into this, but survived the fall and 
effected an escape, which was considered as very wonderful. — — Besides the punish- 
ments Zrifiia, 'Arifxia, and Kvabuv or KXowg, mentioned among Athenian penalties (cf. 
§ 113), the Spartans 3 had Maariywaig, whipping, which the offender received as he was 
driven through the city, and Ke^o-is, goading, which was a similar punishment. Ba- 
nishment, <3%y>7, seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence ; 
but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy (dn/*ui). 

i Robinson, Arch. Graec. bk. ii. ch. 24. <* cf. Thuc. i. 134.— Paus. iv. IS. § A.—Sirab. \ui.—Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. iv. 

sect. 4. 3 Cf. MUller, Hist, and Ant. Dor. vol. ii. p. 235. 

2 u. Among the Spartans also various rewards and distinctions were bestowed on 
persons of merit, both while living and after death. 

3. Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the UpotSpa, first seat in a 
public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached to the olive-crown, 
'EXainc. (rrapavos, as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, BsteXmes, with which victors 
in the contests were bound. But it was one of the highest honors of the city to be 
elected into the number of the three hundred constituting the three chosen bands of 

horsemen ($ 124), termed Aoydfcc. To commemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs 

(KEvordcbia), and other monuments were erected. 

§ 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its author, and was 
marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of government was distin- 
guished from that of all the other states by its union of monarchical with aristo- 
cratical and democratical traits. There were in Sparta no written laws ; they 
were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycur- 
gus styled them p^Vpat. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed 
to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and voluptuousness. 
Although they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their 
authority through a period of above 800 years. 

Cf. MUller, as before cited, vol. ii. p. 97, 235.— Xenophon, on the Polity of the Lacedaemonians (cf. P. V. § 1S6).— The works cited 

§118. 

§ 1 30. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of Crete presents a 
constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has been stated (§ 38), that 
we find the origin of the institutions of Lycurgus. During the republican go- 
vernment which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ten offi- 
cers annually as chief magistrates. These were called Cosmi, xoopot,, and were 
taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which was con- 
sulted only on important questions; it consisted of 28 members, who for the 



192 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order of 
knights, who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public 
use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not 
great ; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. 

Cf. MUtter, vol. ii. p. 99, 134.— ffick, Kreta. Getting. 1829. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces 
of them found in different writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had 
public meals, which they called dipnoi. — Slaves were treated with comparative 
mildness. 

1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, "by that system of laws which, in an 
age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, in- 
forced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not 
only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well known to us through the 
fame of Lacedasmon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legis- 
lation and jurisprudence ; and which continued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest 
sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and philosophy." 

See Sainte Croix, Des Anciens gouvernements federatifs, et legislation de Crete. Par. 1776. 

2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen, 
called by the Cretans /xvoia; the slaves of individual citizens, a</>a/uo3rai ; and the tribu- 
taries, xmfiKoot. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the dependent classes 
were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employment and profession, 
with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, were permitted to them. 
— Muller, as cited § 118, vol. ii. 5. 

3. The name dvSpela is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as 
at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had the care 
of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distinguished by their great hospi- 
tality ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — Muller, 
ii. 225. 

The term dyk\r\ was used to designate an assembly of young men, who lived toge- 
ther from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. These young men, 
called dyeXdaroL, were under the care of a person termed dyeXdrrig, who superintended 
their military and gymnastic exercises. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 

§ 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Boeotia, a monarchical government 
existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a republican. Yet this state 
did not rise to any great celebrity, at least for a long time; the cause was per- 
haps the whole national character of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, 
there were in Thebes Boeotarchs, Botorap^at, and Polemarchs Ho%£/Aap%oc ; the 
former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Bceotia 
was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the 
other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but 
never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants was not permitted, 
hut if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state. 
Pausanias has recorded in his description of Bceotia many remarkable features 
of the later condition of the Theban state. 

The Boeotians had a great national festival, TlanfioiuTia, in honor of Athena Itonia, who "had 
a temple near Coronea, near which the festival was held. 

Cf. Mitford, ch. v. sect. 1.— Racul-RochUte, Administration de l'Etat Federatif des Bceotiens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e 
d'JJisi. et Lit. Anc. vol. viii. p. 214. 

§ 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinth but little is known. It was 
at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphidee and Bacchiadae were the 
most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocratical form was introduced, 
one chief magistrate was chosen yearly called Upvtavl^. He was supported by 
a senate, repoutfJa. The assembly of the people never had equal authority; 
their power was often very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and en- 
joyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two 
harbours so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de- 
stroyed by the Romans, B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt by Caesar, and 
became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra were colonies of Corinth. 
The last city is specially remarkable, from the fact, that a dispute between itself 
and Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a 
long time governed by 600 of the oldest men, called ym/xopoi ; but afterwards 
became entirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. 

Cf. Millltr, as before cited, vol. ii. p. 156. 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 193 

§ 134. Jtrgos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings. 
In later times it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It had 
its senate, and another body of magistrates consisting of eighty members, and 
a class of public officers called aptvvoi. 

Cf. MUller, vol. ii. p. 144, 147. 

In the history of JEtolia^ we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or 
confederacy between the cities of that district. This confederacy was called 
the Pametolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which 
the magistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was 
called stpatTjyb^ and was at the same time chief military commander. This 
officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (artoxtytot) 
was a different body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- 
gencies. 

See F. W. Tiitmann, Darstellung der Griech. Staatsverfassungen. Leipz. 1822. 8. 

The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held their com- 
mon assemblies twice a year at iEgium. In these originally presided one 
rpafipatzvS) with two "Ztpat^yoo ; and at a later period, one X-tpatyyos, besides 
whom there were ten Arjfxuovpybo to attend to the public affairs of the con- 
federacy. 

Cf. JBreiterbauch, Geschichte der Achaer und ihres Bundes. Leipz. 1782. 



III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

§ 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), was a main 
trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in 
their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more 
emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by their educa- 
tion, bound by their laws and their honor to conquey or die, and inspired by 
their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were ac- 
cordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. 
The Thebans, likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of dis- 
tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this 
respect; and although in the war with Xerxes they agreed that Athens should 
command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon again fell 
into dissension, and the Spartans stripped the Athenians, for a time, of that 
naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest 



On Grecian military affairs, see Nast, Ktipke, &c. cited § 42. 

§ 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were 
early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at Athens the twentieth 
year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released 
only by the approaching weakness of age. At Athens the citizens were ex- 
empted from military service at the age of forty, except in cases of extreme 
danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employ- 
ment. Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made 
out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xataypafyrj, or xataxoyo^. 
The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citizen considered it a 
disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree, 
a substitute. Pericles, however, introduced the payment of a stipend, which 
was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwealth. 

At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; afterwards four ; whence rerpufioXov 
Pioi signified a soldier's life, and rsTpafioXiSeiv, to serve in war. The pay of a soldier in 
the cavalry, termed Karaaraa^, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, with 
an allowance for a servant. 

On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expenses, see !)§ 103, 104. On the military regulations, cf. Gar- 

mer, Sur les loix militaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 239.— Cf. § 42. 

§ 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian soldiers were 

of three classes ; footsoldiers or infantry, ?o ri^ixbv ; the cavalry, to £$ iftrtav ; 

and such as were borne in chariots, ^6 i$ 6%r i /.ia.tccv. The infantry comprised 

three kinds; the 07t7uVa«., heavy armed, who carried a complete and full armor. 

25 R 



194 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

and were distinguished particularly by a large shield (orfkov) ; the jisMcMtcu, 
targeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield (7ti%t<yj) ; and the 
4-Ool, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. — The 
war chariots were not much used after the introduction of cavalry. 

The chariots, termed Spenavrnpopoi, were sometimes terribly destructive, being armed with 
sythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes cut down. — In Plate XVII. rig. K, 
one of these chariots is presented, drawn by two horses which are protected by a covering of 
mail. — -It may be worthy of remark here, that such chariots were used by the ancient Britons 
and Belgians, and are designated in the Roman writers by the terms covini and essedce. (Lucan, 
Phars. i. 426.— Tac. Agric. xxxvi.— Cces. Bell. Gall. iv. 33.— Mela, iii. 6.) "The covinus was a 
terrible instrument of destruction, being armed with sharp sythes and hooks for cutting and 
tearing all who were so unhappy as to come within its reach." R. Henry, History of Great 
Britain, (first ed.) Lond. 1771-93. 6 vols. 4. 

§ 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consisted only of 
citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain 
their horses. The Irtrttvs, therefore, at Athens as well as Sparta, held a high 
rank. Those who wished to attain this rank were first examined in respect 
to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch 
or Phularch (trtrtap;^, fyvhdpxqs) appointed for the purpose. They were called 
by various names according to the weapons of armor they used; as, e. g., 
axpofio'kLO'tcu, who threw missiles; rSopar'oqbopot, who carried spears or lances; 
t7t7toT'o|oT'at., t~vOT?o<p6pot, xovtotyopot, £h>p£o<j>6pot., etc. The following articles 
constituted their principal armor : a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a 
large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. 

The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished into the heavy-armed, xa- 
r&ppaKTOi, and light-armed, \xr) KaratypaKTot. The former not only were defended by armor 
themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which 
were named, from the parts of the horse covered by them, irponsnmiSia, -npoo-repvidia, napa- 
firipiha, mxpanXevpiSia, TcapaKvr\ju6ia, etc. The trappings of the horses were termed (pd\apa ; 
various and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered cloths were 
often used. — The Aipaxai wire a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to 
serve either on horseback or on foot. — The "A^nmoi were such as had two horses ; 
called also Imraywyol, because they led one of their horses. — After the time of Alexan- 
der, elephants were introduced from the east ; but they were after a short period laid 
aside, as they were found too unmanageable to be relied upon with much confidence. 
When used, they carried into battle large towers, containing from ten to thirty sol- 
diers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, while they were themselves 
in comparative safety. 

Saltier and Freret, Orig. de l'equitation dans la Grece, in the Mem. Jlcad. Inser. vii. 33, 2S6.— De Maizeroy, La Cavalerie Grecque, 
in the same Mem. &c. xli. 24Z.—Larc!ier, L'ordre equestre chez les Grecs, in the same Mem. &c. xlviii. 83. 

§ 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been already 
described (§ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, that in later times 
there were many changes, as to the forms of the articles, and the manner of 
using them. 

1. The breastplate (Supal) consisted of two parts, one for a defence for the back, 
the other for the breast, united at the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two 
continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called §u>pal a-rddios ; 
when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connected as in a chain, it was 
called -&wpa£ dXvaidojTds ; it' guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it was called 
§6pal XeiriStordg, The vfiidcopaKiou protected only the front part of the body ; Alexander 
allowed only this to his soldiers. — Within the Swpa£, and next to the skin the Greeks 
also wore often a defensive armor of brass lined with wool, which was termed |t«r/»7. 
Cf. Horn. II. iv. 137, 187. 

The thorax is seen in fig. r, of Plate XXII. ; also on the warrior, fig. 7. In fig. 5, the thorax seems to be guarded with plates like 
the scales of a fish ; also in Plate XXXIV. fig. b. 

2. The shield (dams) when of wood was made of the lightest kind, as willow, beach, 
poplar, &c. When made of hide (danlSes j36eiai), there were usually several thicknesses 
covered with a plate or plates of metal. Its chief parts were the outer edge or cir- 
cumference, avTu\, irvg, kvk\o;, TrEpi^kpeia ; the boss or prominent part in the middle, 
6)A(pa'\ds, p.z(joii<i)d\iov ; the thong of leather by which it was attached to the shoulders, 
Tsia/xibv ; the rings by which it was held in the hands, mpnaKsg, for which the handle, 
bxavov, consisting of two small bars placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Lit- 
tle bells were sometimes hung upon the shields to increase the terror occasioned by 
shaking them. "Zdy/jia was the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from 
injury when not in actual use , the word also designates a packsaddle. Various epi- 
thets are applied to shields; dptpiflpoTog, dv5pojir)Kris, Txohr\vr\Kr\g^ indicative of size; evkvkXoc, 



PLATE XXII. 




196 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ravroTE "cm, of shape. The Tifpov was in the shape of a rhombus, and first used by 
the Persians ; the Ovpeds was oblong and bent inward ; the Aaamov was composed of 
hides with the hair on, and was very light ; the IHXtt] was small and light, and, ac- 
cording to some, shaped like a half-moon. 

In Plate XXII. are several forms of shields ; see fig. 3, fig. 4, fig. 7. See also Plate XXX. fig. 1, fig. 4 ; and Plate XXXIII. fig. 1, 
fig- 2. 

3. Besides the offensive weapons which have already been named (see $ 45, and Plate XVII.), 
we may mention the poniard, called "Kapalupititov, eyx^ipiSiov, and p&xaipa; it answered the 
purpose of a knife. In later ages, the dicii/aKris was borrowed from the Persians. This has gene- 
rally been considered as curved, and has usually been translated cimiter ; infimith's Dictionary 
it is contended, that it was straight like the dagger; the writer quotes Josephus (Ant. Jud. xx. 
7-10) as saying of the assassins who infested Judea before the destruction of Jerusalem, that 
" they used daggers in size resembling the Persian acinaces, but curved, and like those 
which the Romans called siccc, and from which robbers and murderers are called sicarii;'' the 
acinaces seems to have been worn on the right side. The Konlg or falchion (ensi.f falcatus) was 
also used in battle ; as was likewise the battle-ax, d^ivr), and the ire^cKVs. The Macedonians 
had a peculiar kind of long- spear, called adpicraa. The club of wood or iron, Kopvvri, was a wea- 
pon of early times.— We may mention among the offensive weapons the Trvpo,6o\oi Xidoi, fire- 
balls : one kind (.cKVTa'kia) were made of wood and armed with spikes of iron, under which were 
fixed hemp, pitch, and other combustibles; these, being set on fire, were hurled into the ranks 
of the enemy. 

Iu Plate XVII. fig. C, is the fidxaipa ; in Plate XXXIII. fig. 4, we see hanging at the right thigh the weapon which the writer 
mentioned above considers as the aKivditqs ; the same is seen in the hand of Mithras, in the Sup. Plate 9 ; cf. also fig. B, in Plate 
XVII. 

On the various articles of armor, see Foslrohe's Encyclopaedia.— S. R. Meyrick, Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armor, &c. with a 
Glossary of Names of the Arms of the Middle Ages. Lond. 1824. 3 vols. 4 ; a work which may be recommended to the student 
desirous of full information on this subject. 

§ 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the kings them- 
selves, although at the same time certain men, eminently brave, were appointed 
to be polemarchs or generals. Subsequently each tribe chose its own com- 
mander, who was called ataatrjyb^. At Athens it became customary to appoint 
ten, who had equal power, and who held the chief command one day each in 
regular rotation, when they took the field together. Over these was a pole- 
march, whose opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an 
equal division among them; at a later period, however, this officer (rfoTi^ap^oj) 
had no share in military affairs (§ 101). — There were also ten taxiarchs, 
*a%iapx 0l "> subordinate to the 6T?pat?jyoi ; their duty was to put the army in array 
for battle, mark out the camp, regulate the order of march, and in general 
attend to the preservation of discipline. Subordinate also to the Strategi were 
the two generals of the horse, trfrtap^ot, who had under them ten (jnAap^ot, one 
nominated by each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as xo^ayot, #aiap- 
2ot, £xa,T'<Wap#o£-, SgjcaSap^ot, rtfjUTtaSovp^oc, the names being derived from the 
number of men commanded by them. 

§ 141. The whole army was called ofpafta; the front, /xs-tcortov or rtpwr'oj 
£ry6j ; the wings, xipa-ta ; the rear, ovpa or tozato$ £uyoj. The smallest divi- 
sion, consisting of five men, was called a Tt£ix7id$ ; a "h6%os contained from ten 
to a hundred men, according to different circumstances ; and a tfaftj, a hundred, 
or a hundred and twenty-eight. 

The ra%is was also called eKarovTaoxia. Each division of this sort had five attendants, 
who (cKraKTOL) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the arparoKfipv^, who reported the officer's 
commands to the soldiers ; the o-^io^dpof , who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or 
watchwords; the caXmyKTris, a trumpeter; the v-mnpirr}*; , who supplied the members of 
the division with necessaries ; and the 6vpayd$, whose business was to see that none 
of the number were left behind. 

Some of the larger divisions ; cvvraypa, consisting of two rd^sig, or 256 men ; mvra- 
Kocriapxia, two avvraypara, or 512 men ; x i ^ a PX^, two of the last, or 1024 men ; Mepapxia, 
or TeXos , twice the preceding, or 2048 men ; Qahayyapxla, or Yrparnyia sometimes, 

twice the TeXo?, or 4096 men ; the commander of the latter was called arparriydq. 

The term $a\ay% signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers ; some- 
times a body of 4000, as just mentioned; and sometimes any number of troops in 
general. Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained four times the num- 
ber included in the (pa\ayyapxta, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. 

§ 142. While the term $caovy| is often used in a general sense for any num- 
ber of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arrangement 
in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock ; 
the Macedonians were especially celebrated for using it to advantage.— The 
l/jifioKov was the same with the Roman cuneus, an arrangement in the form of a 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PHALANX. HERALDS. CAMPS. 197 

wedge, in order to force a way more easily and further into the midst oi aa 
enemy. — Wheeling, turning, or facing, was called xxitic, ; to the right, ijti d6pv> 
the spear being in the right hand ; to the left, l-jt aty7tt6a, the shield being 
held in the left. Turning completely about was termed fieVajidk^. — The Greeks 
possessed great skill and readiness in manoeuvres, and had teachers of the art, 
t&xtLxbi, who instructed the youth in the practice. 

1. Various forms were given to the Qakayl, some of which were not rectangular ; as 
the eziKapirris <pa\ayz, which presented the form of a half-moon, and was also called 
Kvprri and xoi'Xr] ; popfiosiStis </>aAay£, which was in the figure of a diamond. In the pha- 
lanx, $oyoi signified the ranks, taken according to its length, pfjxos ; ut'qqh (also \6\oi) 
the files taken according to its depth, 0d6og. — Another order of array for battle was the 
-\ivdiov, brick, a rectangular presenting its length to the enemy. — The -nip-yog, tower, 
was the same form, with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. — 
The -nXaioiov seems to have been an exact square or nearly so.' — The Koi\ep(3o\ov was a 
figure like the letter V, with the open part toward the enemy. — The «A?? was in the 
form of an egg, according to which the Thessalians usually arranged their cavalry. — 
Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add only the following ; 
e^eXiypd;, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after another, changed 
the front for the rear, or one flank for another; Si-rrXaaiao-pos, an enlarging of the body, 
either by adding men or by extending the same number over a great space. 

2. The term 1'Ar?, sometimes applied as above mentioned, to designate a certain order of array, 
was generally used to signify a body of cavalry; a troop sometimes consisting of 64 horsemen. 
Two such troops constituted the liriXapxia, containing 128 men; eight of them formed the 
lirirapxia, containing 512 men ; four of the last named formed the TeXug of the cavalry, including 
2048 men ; and two reXn made the 'E-rriraypa, comprising 4096 men. 

3. It may be remarked that among the Lacedemonians, the whole army was divided into popai 
which contained originally only 400 men each, but afterwards a larger number, and variable. 
Each popa consisted of four \6xoi. The ttzv rriKoarvs was one-half of the \6\og ; and one-half 
of the irevTriKovTvs was termed evcoporiq, including 25 men; the latter body is said by some to 
have contained thirty-two or thirty-six men. 

The earliest ancient works which treat expressly of Grecian tactics are those of Arrian and iElian ; cf. P. V. § 250, § 253. 

§ 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand made by the 
injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Un- 
expected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified 
only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected 
for the ambassadors and-heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred 
and inviolable. 

1 u. The heralds (xfipvKes) carried a staff wound with two serpents (xripvKewv), and 
were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies 
(-rrpiafisi;) were accustomed also to threaten and to announce war. The power of ambas- 
sadors was limited in different degrees at different times (cf. § 102). The leagues or 

agreements entered into were either (1) c-novhf\, a treaty of peace or mutual cessation 
from injuries, called also o-wdfiicri, eipfivri; (2) e-mp.axla, a treaty of mutual defence ; or 
(3) avppaxia, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to 
aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves commenced 
the war. Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, written upon 
tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged certain tokens 
or evidences (o-vp(5o\a) of the compact. 

2 u. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war 
was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention was also paid by the 
Greeks to omens and seasons. 

3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march before 
the seventh day, ivrog ePSo^s, nor the Lacedaemonians until full moon. 

§ 144. In addition to what has already been said (§ 48) on the construction 
of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed 
according to circumstances. The Lacedaemonians, however, always adhered 
to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops 
were usually placed on the extremities or wrings, and the weakest in the centre 
or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship 
of the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards 
were divided into the day-watches, ^vlaxat, q/xspwcu, and the night-watches, 
$v%axcu vvxtepovcu. The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called 
rCpo(pv%axav. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called i$o8eCa t and 
those who performed it, rtfptrto^ot, and the guard-house, 7tF.pi7toteiov. 

§ 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating and 
drinking, immediately after which the commanders ordered them to action. — 

r 2 



198 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

When very near the point of engaging, the generals addressed the army in 
animating speeches, which often produced great effects. Then followed the 
sacrifice, the vow, and the war-song (^aiow cjtjSoWijptoj), a hymn to Mars. — 
The signs used in the field were either GTj/xtla, regular ensigns and standards, 
or tfvjuji3o*,a, particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon 
for the occasion. 

1 u. The special signals, cvpfioXa, were either audible (tywviKa), such as watchwords 
(awdrijxara) ; or visible {bpara), such as nodding the head, waving the hand, shaking the 
armor, and the like (rcapaawBriimTa). The aripsta or standards were of various kinds ; 
some being merely a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear ; others having an 
image of a bird, animal, or other object. The raising of the standard was a signal to 
commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal for battle 
was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons appointed {irvp<p6poi). Af- 
terwards it was done by blasts of sound, for which shells {k6x\oi) were first used, and 
then brazen trumpets (ad\myyeg) of several different kinds. 

2 u. The Lacedaemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute ; yet 
we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as regular and as conform- 
able to music, as the modern. Most of them were rather in the habit of rushing to 
battle with impetuosity and clamor (d\a\aypds, awn). 

§ 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, because 
the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor were the later Greeks, 
especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in the habit of laying regular 
sieges. The two principal points of proceeding in the siege of a city, were 
the construction of the entrenchment around it, and the gathering and use of 
military engines about it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls 
of the city by ladders (srttjSaflpat, xfopaxts) and to undermine their founda- 
tions. — An entrenchment around the city was called rtapt'r'ft^ifytoj, or ajtotzi- 
%u3Iaos, and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In the space 
between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the sentinels. Above the 
walls were turrets or pinnacles (IrtoaiftV), and after every tenth pinnacle a 
large tower was constructed, extending across from one wall to the other. The 
parapet of the wall was termed §rwpa| or ^opaxtov. 

§ 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (pdyava, firixavai) were 
of a comparatively late invention, and seem to have been introduced first about 
the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the principal was the x^vvj, the 
testudo or tortoise ; so called because the soldiers were covered by it as a tor- 
toise by its shell. 

1 u. The testudo was of several kinds. The xe\6vri ctpcltmtwv was formed by the 
soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over their heads in such a 
manner as to form a compact covering. It was also formed of boards, united and 
covered with metals ; this was either of a square form, as the x&<*> v n Xwrpls, which 
served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring 
up their military engines, or of a triangular form, as the x^vn opv%, for the protection 
of such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was 
called the yeppov, made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinece, and held by the sol- 
diers over the head. 

2 u. The x&n a was a mound composed of various materials and raised very high, 
often above the besieged walls.— There were also moveable towers (irvpyoi), made of 
wood and usually placed upon the x^a ; they were rolled on wheels and had often 
several stories, containing soldiers and engines. — The battering-ram (Kpws) was a strong 
beam with an iron head (£p/3o\ri) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers 
thrust against the enemy's walls ; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that 
it could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered 
with a xeXwj/r/. The KaramXrai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like 
upon the enemy ; those which discharged arrows, being termed 6^v/3s\ets, and those 
which cast stones, ~\i9o l 86\oi or itsTpo(16koi. 

Dionysius Siculus (xx. 48, 86) speaks of the latter engines as sometimes capable of throwing 
stones of one hundred weight (\ido06\os raXavTiaios), and even of three hundred weight (irerpo- 
06Xos rpiToXavrialos). 

3. The 'E\fao\is was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of greater size 
and force, driven with ropes and wheels. This name (e\mo\is, city-laker) was first ap- 
plied by Demetrius Poliorcetes to a machine invented by him, in the form of a square 
tower ; each side being ninety cubits high and forty-five wide ; resting on four wheels ; 
divided into nine stories, which each contained engines for throwing spears, stones, 
and various missiles ; manned by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 48. — The Tpmava 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. PUNISHMENTS. 199 

were long irons with sharp ends, and were the instruments chiefly used in earlier 
periods for demolishing the walls of a city. 

§ 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the things most 
worthy of remark. Soldiers, armed with various means of defending them- 
selves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on the walls of the city. The 
greater military engines were planted within the walls, and hurled arrows, 
stones, and pieces of timber upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers 
were opposed by counter-mines, and their entrenchments and mounds were 
undermined. Their various engines were broken, set on fire, or embarrassed 
in operation by different contrivances on the part of the besieged. 

§ 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always treat the citizens 
and the property in the same way. Sometimes the buildings were demolished, 
and all the inhabitants put to death, or at least those in arms, while the rest 
(d(,£ 1 ua?icoT'o£,, 6opvd%u,tov) were reduced to slavery. But sometimes favor was 
shown, and nothing but the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new 
settlers were planted in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demo- 
lished, it was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even 
cultivate the soil. 

§ 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, consisted 
partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which were the pro-r 
perty of the conquered party. These, when taken from the slain, were termed 
6xv%a ; if from the living, -kdtyvpa. The whole (tVapa) was brought to the 
commander-in-chief, who first took a large portion for himself, then assigned 
rewards to such as had distinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards 
distributed the remainder equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, 
a portion was set apart for the service of the gods, which was called axpodlvta. 
The armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and hung up 
in their temples; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of the 
victors, when they designed to terminate their military career. Thank-offer- 
ings were also presented, and trophies (tpoAaia) erected, which were likewise 
dedicated to the gods; statues also and other monuments were raised to com- 
memorate victories. 

An inscription (liriypaixna) was often attached to the trophy, or offering presented to the god, 
or other monument, containing the names of the conquerors and the conquered, an account of 
the spoils, and sometimes of the occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especially an 
olive, was often used for the purpose of a trophy, the emblems of victory being hung upon it. — 
Alexander the Great, abiding by a law of the Macedonians, never raised a trophy ; yet he erected 
other monuments of his successes; among them were altars to the gods, very broad and lofty. 
A representation of the tropaum is given in Plate XXII. fig. 4. 

§ 151. There was a careful regard to order and discipline in the Greek 
armies, and various rewards and punishments were established. Among the 
rewards were promotion to higher rank, conferring of garlands or other distinc- 
tions, and also the funeral honors and the encomiums, which were bestowed 
on the brave warrior. At Athens public provision was made for the widows 
and children of those slain in battle, and also for those who were injured by 
wounds (dSviWot). The children of such as valiantly died were also honored 
sometimes with the first seats (rtpofSpiou-) at the theatres. — The severest of the 
punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, cWop&ot. Such as 
refused to serve, acrtpatevtot, such as quitted their ranks, "hsirtotdxtcu, and such 
as threw away their shields, ^ouyrtto^, were subject to civil degradation. At 
Athens they were not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and 
were also fined in the court Heliaea. In Sparta they were exposed to still 
deeper disgrace, which extended even to their whole family ; it was so great 
that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afterwards. 

§ 152. The Greeks employed various means for conveying intelligence. They 
had a class of messengers or runners, called nixepoSpo/xoi, who carried news and official 
commands ; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much celebrated was the La- 
cedaemonian crKVTaXr). This was a roll of white parchment or leather (<5%ta, l/ias), wrap- 
ped round a black stick, about four cubits in length. The general always received a 
stick of this sort, of the same size with another kept by the magistrates or govern- 
ment. When any command or intelligence was to be conveyed, a strip of parchment 
was rolled on the staff, and on this was written what the person wished to communi- 



200 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES 

cate ; the strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own stick, and thus 
could read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible. 

§ 153. Before proceeding now to notice the naval affairs of the Greeks, we 
may allude to their method of passing rivers with their armies. It was usually 
by means of boats (o^fdYcu) or small vessels joined together so as to form a sort 
of bridge (yirpvpa), like that which the Persians under the command of Xerxes 
threw over the Hellespont. In order to hold these vessels fast, large baskets 
or boxes, filled with stone, were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the 
purpose of anchors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the 
greatest emergencies that they carried forward with them these boats, having 
taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by means of large 
casks and leathern bottles. 

Darius is -said to have thrown a bridge across the Thracian Bosphorus (Herod, iv. 83, 85). That 
of Xerxes over the Hellespont was built between Abydos on the one side and Sestos on the 
other (Herod, vii. 36). 

§ 154. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been already mention- 
ed (§ 47). Vessels of war (Irfwecorfo^ xojrt^prj) differed in their structure from 
the other kinds, especially from ships of burden (ukxdSs j, q>opTfr]yoi) which were 
of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three 
benches of rowers, called fptvjpsts {triremes, cf. § 304), and hence this term is 
often used to signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched, 
it was purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly, 
sometimes a whole fleet, was committed to the protection of a particular god. 
The ensign or standard (rtapdarj/jLov), by which one ship was distinguished from 
another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had its own name, which 
was usually taken from its ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow. 

§ 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to the dif- 
ferent parts of a ship and the tackling. The Arabic numerals attached to some of the 
terms in the following description are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our 
Plate XXIII. , indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwelVs plan of 
a hexireme. 

1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the prow or front, npoipa, list^ttov, the 
middle, or body, psaoKoiXos, ydo-rpa; and the stern, -rcpviivcO ', dvpa. — The prow was more 
or less adorned, not only by the figures and images placed on it, but by the colors 
painted on it, from which were derived such epithets as ixiXmraprjoi, Kvavtp.(lo\oi, &c. The 
sides of it were termed jrrepa and rrapuai. The ordAoj was a long plank at the head of 
the prow, at the extremity of which some of the principal ornaments, dxpovia, dKpoord- 
ha 8 , were fixed. The irruxfe 10 was a round piece of wood also attached to the prow, 
on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was sometimes called 6(pda\ixds. The 
Xrivic-Kos was the figure of a goose upon the prow ; near the water, according to the 
opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher part. The ep.(3o\ov n was the lower 
portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war gallies was fitted to strike 
into the ships of the enemy. Behind this, and just below the <rr6\og, was the napaon- 
fxov or ensign, some image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the follow- 
ing parts; the rponi^ or <JTiipr\, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut 
the waves, with the xtktvap.ara, wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the 
ship's bottom: (paX/as, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, 
dvr\ia ; the koiXyj, hold (called also kvto s , and ydo-rpa), surrounded by ribs or planks 
rising from the keel, vop.eXg pr eyKoiXia; the ^coarripeg, or viro^wiiara, rafters, or ropes, on 
the sides (-rrXevpafy of the ship from prow to stern; the toTxol and ldu>\ia* seats for the 
rowers situated on the sides one above another ; the rpfifiara or tydriXntn? openings 
through which the oars were put out ; the ao-Ko/xa, a skin or the like, which lined the 
openings ; sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, called rpd^l, a 

term applied also to the bulwark or upper part of it. The stern had ornamental 

images, called dxpovia, in common with those on the prow, but termed distinctively, 
d(p\ao-Ta 9 . To the stern was also attached the emrponr] n , the tutela or safeguard of the 
ship. Its bow was termed imasiav, and the planks composing it, mpiroveia. The mid- 
dle of the stern was named, dadvbiov. The decks, wpia, were covered parts at the 
prow and stern ; the $vyd were the rowers' seats in the middle and open parts. 

2. Some of the principal instruments (o-icevri) in navigating vessels may be mentioned 
here ; they are included under two divisions, the wooden (oxevri ^vXtva) and the hanging 
(weir] Kptiiaara). The rcr)6akiou^, rudder, fixed not directly in the stern, but on the side of 
the ship, and near the stern. In the later periods, two rudders were used, one being 
placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence vms dp.(b'nrp»ixvoi) ; sometimes there were 
four, one on each side of prow and stern. The parts of the rudder were oiaf, (pOeip, 
vnpvyiov, dvx¥, Ka/xa^. — The iwn, ayKvpa, anchor ; first a stone bored in the middle, or 



PLATE XXIII. 







26 



2U1 



202 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

a basket filled with stones ; afterwards made of iron with teeth, 6S6vnc, fastening it to 
the earth ; the largest of a ship's anchors was called kpa, and hence (SaWsiv dyxvpai' 
'upav obtained its proverbial sense, to resort to the last refuge. The cables attached to 
the anchors, were neicrpara, or /ca/o/Xoi ; ropes for towing were termed pvpara, oXwn; 
those for binding a vessel to the shore, npvpviicia. — The K&nai and cperpoi, oars, having a 
broad part covered with metal (jr\6mi), and hung upon pieces of wood called cxaXnoi, by 
leathern thongs, rpfaoi. — The fords 16 , mast, fixed in a hole (^o-dj^), in the middle of the 
ship ; capable of being taken down and put in a case (IotoJwo?) ; having several parts, 
as Trrepva, rpdx^oc, Kapxwiov , Swpaxiov, ixpiov, rjkaita.TT\. The KCpaTat, or K£para is , were the 
crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast ; the dxpoKipaia were the extremities of the yards. 
The hrriaM, sails (called also dddvai, appsv a), including particular ones distinctively named, 
as brlSpoposy mizen-sail; dxdnov, main-sail (dxdnov also signifies a small vessel, like a pi- 
rate's) ; dprkjxov, top -sail ; tioKwv, sprit-sail. — The eppia, dsjxsXios, ballast.' — The /?oXfc , the lead 
for sounding. — The xovroi, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The dirofiaOpai, 
bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also 
emPadpai and dvafidQpai). — The term &rXa was applied to the rigging generally. — The 
terms oxoivia, k&\ol, and roneta are commonly considered as synonymous, and as signi- 
fying the cordage ; including mirovoi, TrofccP, npoiroSsc, ptaovpiai, rrpdrovoi' 20 , made at first 
of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax, hemp, and the like. But Bockh considers the 
oxoivia as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to which the anchor was attached 
and by Avhich the ship was fastened to the land ; and the ronzXa as designating the 
lighter ropes, including xaXciSia or xd\oi, Ipdwes, xepovxot, virepai, the rope called dyxoiva, 
the x^ivoi, imrovoi, &c. The term iiro^ujiara has generally been interpreted as signi- 
fying boards or planks covering the outside of a ship ; but it is shown by the inscrip- 
tions found in the Piraeus and published by Bockh, that the xmo^para were ropes which 
ran in a horizontal direction around the vessel from the stern to the prow, and were 
intended to keep the fabric together ; and it would seem that such ropes were taken on 
board when a vessel sailed, to be used if necessary ; the expression in Acts xxvii. 17, 
wo(wwwt£s to 7rXotoi/, probably refer to the act of putting these ropes about the vessel. 

See T. D. JVoolsey, on Acts xxvii. 17, in the Bibl. Rcpos. Sec. Series, vol. viii. p. 405. 

3 u. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part, 
was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks, £,u/3oXa 13 , were long and 
high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the 
enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, 
litariks, jutting out, to protect the ship from the beaks of the enemy. The war-ves- 
sels usually had wooden decks or coverings (xara^pdyixara 14 ) on which the soldiers 
stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both 
sides (frepKppdyp.ara, Trapappvpara), to protect them from the waves and from the enemy's 
missiles. The usual sign of a war-vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the 
mast. 

4. The beaks are seen in Plate XXIII. fig. A, 13 ; and also in fig. b, which is a prow taken from 
a bas-relief at Rome, and which shows the ensign behind them, and the acrostolia above it. In 
fig. a, from an ancient coin, we have another prow, which has a trophy erected upon it. In fig. c, 
which is from the sculptures on the column of Antonine (cf. P. IV. <j 188. 2), is a prow of another 
form. In fig. 4, we see a merchant-vesse], managed by oars or sails ; in fig. 5, a war-vessel with 
oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. 

The names of the various parts of a ship may be found, with explanations of every thing relating to this subject, in J. Scheffer, 
Diss, de Varietate navium, Upsal. 1654 ; contained also in T. Gronuvii Thesaurus, &c. vol. xi. as cited § 13. — See also, by the same, 
Comment, de militia navali veterum. Ups. 1654. 4. — Lenoy, La marine des anciens Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. 
p. 542.— Potter's Arch. Graec. bk. ii. ch. 14.— Robinson's bk. iv. ch. \A—A. Jal, Archeologie Navale. Par. 1840.— Also Holwell, 

and Le Roy, as cited § 156. On the Attic navy especially, A. Bockh, Urkunden uber das Seewesen des Attischen Staates. Berl. 

1840. 

§ 156. Originally the employments of the rowers and the combatants were 
not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions of both. In later 
times there was a division into three classes ; (1) the rowers or oarsmen, ipetai, 
xco7iyj%dtai, who were also distinguished by specific names, according to the 
rank of their bench, and their work and pay ; (2) the sailors, vavtcu, who attend- 
ed to all the other proper duties of the ship ; (3) the marines, sTtv^d'tai, who 
were armed like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable. 

Rowers in the upper tier of benches, or the portion of benches highest above the 
water (Qpivoc) were called SpavTrat ; those in the middle, ^vyXrai (from $vyd) ; those in 
the lower tier or portion, S-aAa//IVa(. The rowers were also distinguished, as those 

near the prow, Trpoxco-ai ; and those near the stern, hti/cwttoi. Of the sailors, some 

(dpiisviarai) had the care of the sails ; others (oxoivoParai) went aloft on the ropes to look 
out ; others (psaoi/avrai) were to supply the seamen with whatever was needed. 

There have been various theories to explain the manner in which the banks of rowers in the 
ancient galleys were arranged, in the different classes of ships termed rpifipsis, Tsrpfipeis, irevTfi- 
pcii, &c. trireme, quadrireme, quinquireme, 8fc. — The most common idea formerly was, that the 
benches were placed one above another. But there were galleys of seven, twelve, fifteen, and 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. NAVAL OFFICERS. 203 

sixteen banks of oars ; Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty banks. If the benches were placed 
directly above each other, the bars in the upper benches must have been so long as to be wholly 
useless. — Another solution is, that the banks were ranged in one continuous line along the side 
of the galley; in a trireme, the first bank being in her bows, the second in her middle or waist, 
the third in her stern. But such an arrangement would require a huge length in the vessel of 
forty hanks, or even twelve ; besides which, it is stated that the oars of a galley were not all of 
the same length. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the suggestion that the galley 
received its denomination from the number of men pulling at the same oar : the trireme would 
have three at one oar; the quinquireme, five, &c. — Another suggestion is, that the banks rose 
one over another to the number of five or seven, the rowers in the higher banks being checkered 
in quincunx with those in the lower; and that if a galley was said to be of any great number, 
the rating was only by the number of men employed at an oar ; e. g. in the galley of forty banks 
there would be five tiers with twelve men at each oar of the highest bank, ten at the next, and 
so on until the lowest, which would have four men, to make forty in all. The engravings of 
fig. B, in our Plate XXIII. are two views, exhibiting such an arrangement ; the upper one is a 
front view, and the lower a sectional view. — Other schemes have been proposed which need not 
be mentioned. The latest is that of Mr. Holwell, of Edinburgh, which is thought by many to have 
set the matter at rest. He supposes a vessel in the original form having one bank of ten oars 
arranged horizontally; let these be divided into two banks of five oars each, and ranged ob- 
liquely, and they will require but about half as much length; this construction, according to 
his conjecture, is the bireme ; a trireme would have three of these oblique ascents or banks, each 
bank having five oars; and thus a vessel might be built with any number of banks by only 
increasing its length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, than in 
a bireme. In Plate XXIII. fig. A, we have a view of a hexireme, or galley of six banks of oars, 
on his scheme ; the Arabic numbers, 21, 22, 23, designate the portion of the banks occupied 
respectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned. 

See J. Ht&well, Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients. I.ond. 1826. 8. — De Le Roy, sur les navires employes par les anciens, 
&c. in the Mem. de VInslitut, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. 479 ; ii. 141, 153.— Of Boyd's ed. of Potter, p. 526, as cited § 13. 

§ 157. Among 1 the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the 
following; 86pata vav/xaxa, very long spears ; Spirtavov, a piece of iron formed 
like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cut the sail-ropes of 
the hostile ship; %elp sto^pa the grappling iron; ctpxayaj, large iron hooks at- 
tached to the mast of a vessel in such a manner that being thrown into the ene- 
my's ships they seized and raised them up into the air. An instrument, called 
from its form the dolphin (Ss%$iv), was often used ; it was made of iron or lead, 
and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violence into an 
adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it. — The means of defence against these 
instruments was to guard the ship by a strong covering of hides. 

§ 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained 
to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained 
to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, or admiral, was called ravctp^oj, 
sometimes croxap^oj, or tf-rpat^yoj ; often there were several in equal com- 
mand, often there was but a single one. The duration of his authority 
was decided by the people, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. 
Next to him were the commanders of individual ships, ■rpir l papxoc ; the Lace- 
dssmonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called l?ti- 
o-roXjvj. (2) Of those, whose authorit}' was confined to the care of the 
ships and the duties/ of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- 
ing; the ap%(,xv3epvr i tr;$, who had the care of the whole fleet; the xi^epi^T^j, 
who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept the helm ; and the 
rfpcopfvf, or rtpopaV/^, the next in command, having the care of every thing be- 
longing to the forepart of the ship. 

There were also, in the second class, the following : rpirtpavXm, the musician, whose 
notes cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars; KeXevarm, who gave 
the word of command to them ; roixap\og, who governed the rowers on one side ; vav- 
(pv\aK£$, employed in guarding the ship from rocks and other dangers ; ra^ag, who 
superintended the food; ioxapsv;, who attended to the fires; \oyiG->K, who kept the 
ship's accounts. 

§ 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten the ship of 
all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render sails, mast, and every 
thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible. 
Then the most favorable position and order of battle was selected, according 
to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and 
the commanders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate their 
men. The signal for the onset was now given; usually done by hanging a 
shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the vdvap%o$; while this sig- 
nal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar to that 



204 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of a siege ; the ships being drawn up in the form of a circle or semicircle or 
letter V. 

§ 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured vessels. 
All the cities which were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the suc- 
cessful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary 
to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for 
that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards 
consecrated to the gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the 
battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes 
adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxpdwa, ajcpwi'iypta), 
of the captured ships. — The most common punishments in the naval service 
were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the 
water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, dwxi^d^ot, 
were, at Athens, punished with disgrace (att/Ma) together with their posterity. 
Deserters, faLTtovavtcu, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. 

IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 

§ 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same 
order as in speaking of the earlier period (§ 51 — 60), and begin with the subject 
of food. In later times, when riches more abounded, the food was less simple 
than before; the Lacedaemonians maintained longest their strictness and fru- 
gality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations, 
and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more culti- 
vated and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent moderate- 
ly, owing, perhaps, to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Wa- 
ter was the common drink, with which they were accustomed to mingle wine. 
The wine sometimes received an addition of myrrh (6tvo? ^vp/jtnV^j,) or of barley 
meal {olvos artrj'ktpc'toipsvos). 

The term employed to designate a drinking cup, xparrfp,^ is commonly derived from 
KepaawBon, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Pot- 
ter states, that no certain proportion was observed in forming this mixture. A very 
common division of wines was into the iroXv^opoi or strong wines, bearing a large addi- 
tion of water, and 6\iyo<p6poi, weak wines. To drink unmixed wine, aKparoitieTv, was 
described as synonymous with "Zv9i(rrimEXv,to drink like a Scythian.— A common Ho- 
meric epithet for wine, is aido\p ; sometimes yepovaiog. (Cf. Horn. II. i. 462, iv. 259.) — ■ 
The sweet, unfermented juice of the grape (jmistum) was termed yXemog. That 
which flowed from the clusters by merely their own pressure was called Ttp6x»ixa. Un- 
fermented wine, inspissated by boiling, bore the name of 'tyrina. — There were various 
sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek 
wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any distinct account, is the Ma- 
ronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 
249). The Pramnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its 
name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the 
Lesbian, Chian, and Thasian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. 
The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The 
Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The Greeks also 
used wines' imported from different places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind was 
brought from Byblos in Phoenicia ; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria 
in Egypt, was Highly valued. 

Compare § 331 b. — See Henderson's History of Ancient and Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4.— This work is adorned with several 
beautiful illustrations taken from antiques, and relating to the use of wine. 

§ 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, axpdtirt/na, 
apurtov, the time of which was not fixed, and a main meal, Ssirtvov, which was 
regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, htChivbv 
or £07t£pi6/xa, and an after-dish or supper, doprtoj. 

Robinson remarks that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not 
consider the foCKiyoy as a separate meal from the Soprrog ; while others think that the 
Greeks had but two meals a day, the apiarov and dopnog. It seems certain, that apwrov 
was finally used to denote the dinner (that is, the meal taken not far from the middle 
of the day), and 5eZm>av the supper, the latter being the principal meal. 

" There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at 
daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the 



PLATE XXIV. 




205 



206 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tribunal, and those employed in 
agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, engaged in their different occupations. At 
mid-day, the more wealthy citizens, who by that time had commonly finished their 
serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few 
hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palaestra, or in walking through the delight- 
ful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing 
with each other in the forum (agora) the interests of the state, the conduct of the 
magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the 
Athenians sometimes played Kvfieia and mrreia', two games, the first of which resem- 
bled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — "During the day, the 
Athenians either took no food or only a slight repast in private. At sun-set they sat 
down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening 
to society and amusement, and often continued to a late hour in the night." 

§ 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on 
festival days ; afterwards they became very common. They were of two sorts : 
the ichnrtwy, given by a single person, and the tpowoj, provided at the expense 
of the party present. Entertainments of the latter kind were generally the most 
frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling; such as were invited free of 
expense, as poets, singers, &c, were called aavpfiofaoi, ; the contribution of each 
other guest was termed Gvpfiohrj, xowajSotaf. — The marriage feast, yc^ioj, is some- 
times considered as a third sort. — There were also public entertainments for a 
whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called tfucrtftVia, rtowSattftar, dslrtvu Sj^oo'ta, <j)pa,- 
■fptxa, &c. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the 
state. 

§ 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and 
anointed. The hands were also again washed (yi^atQui) between the successive 
courses, and at the close of the feast {a7tovi<\a<sdai). In the early times the 
guests sat at table (cf. § 52); in later times they reclined, but not always. The 
couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each 
one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a 
single couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank, 
although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks attached a certain 
idea of sanctity to the table and the rites of the table. 

Three couches, Kkivai, were usually placed round the table, rpdne^a, one on each 
side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated the word rpiicXi- 
viov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, arpwuara, and had pillows, ■npoaKtfyd- 
\aia, for the guests; they were often very costly, being highly ornamented with ivory 
and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining on the same couch, the first 
lay on the uppermost part, with his legs extended behind the back of the second, 
whose head was near the bosom of the first. See § 329. 2. — The tables were made 
of wood, highly polished (|£<m?, ev^oog) ; in the later periods, exceedingly costly, 
adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images. 

§ 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the dsirtvov), the first course, rfpo- 
rto^ua, SsCjivov rtpoob/ALov, consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs, 
oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (otw^su), and the like. Then came 
the chief dish, more substantial and costly, xstyahrj Ssirtvov. Afterwards the 
desert, Sevfipa fpartf^a, consisting of various sweetmeats, furnished with great 
splendor in times of luxury, and called £7tt5Etrtva,/«T'a5op7tta, &c. 

1. The most common food among the Greeks is sTaid to have been the juaCa, a kind 
of soft cake prepared in various ways, of the flour of barley or wheat. Among the 
vegetables that were eaten, were mallows (ixaXaxn), lettuce (§pi5a%), cabbages (pdcpavoi), 
beans (Kvap.01), and lentils ((pcucaT). The sausage (<[>wko) was a favorite article. Fish 
(oipov) also became a favorite dish. 

2 u. In all entertainments it was customary first to offer some of the provisions to 
the gods, especially to make an oblation from the liquor.— On cheerful occasions, the 
guests were clothed in white, and crowned with garlands. 

3. At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands worn 
were formed of the leaf or flower sacred to the particular god honored on the occa- 
sion. At other entertainments they were composed of various sorts, according to the 
season of the year, and the taste and circumstances of the parties. The rose, being 
an emblem of silence, was often placed above the table, to signify that what was 
there said or done should be kept private ; hence the phrase ind pddov, sub rosa. 

§ 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as follows: the 
XvprtotiCapxos, chief manager, who was either the maker of the feast (6 Etftfuu'cop), 

\ 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. CONVIVIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 207 

or one appointed to that place, called also tfparfs^ortoio?, ap^itfptjtfuvoj ; the Batft- 
tevs, whose business was to see that the laws and rules of such entertainments 
were preserved, and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned; the 
Aatrpo?, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and largest 
portions were given to the most honored guest; and the 3 Ot vo%6ot, who dis- 
tributed the drink, and were heralds (x^vxas), youths (xoupot) often of noble 
birth, or servants (Sottfioi). 

In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beautiful slaves, 
to perform the last mentioned office ; for such ones extravagant prices were paid ; and 
a distinction was made between the v6po<p6poi, who served the water, and the divoxooi, 
who poured the wine, and were younger. When waiting at table, they were richly 
adorned in person and dress. 

§ 167. The drinking vessels were generally large, often very rich and costly; 
they were frequently crowned with garlands. 

1. The Kparfip was the vessel in which the wine was mixed with the water and from 
which the cups were filled. Among the various cups used were the kv\iI or Kv\ioKn, 
the (pia\r), the pvrov, the Kapxfaiov, the xavBapog, the knag, &c. The Kvadoi are described 
as a sort of ladles used for conveying the wine from the crater to the cup. 

2. It was customary for the master of the feist to drink to his guests, in the order 
of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person 
named, which was termed irponivav ; while the act of the person, who received the cup 
and drank the rest of its contents, was termed avrmpomveiv. It was also customary to 
drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling them by 
name. Three craters were usually drank to the gods, each one to a particular god ; 
as Kparhp 'Epp.ov ; Kparrjp Aids Ycjrrjpos. — Sometimes the guests contended who should 
drink the most ; and prizes were awarded to the conquerors. Some melancholy ex- 
cesses are recorded ; as, for instance, the case of Alexander, who in this way lost his 

life. Singing (jtoXirh), instrumental music, and dancing (opxwrvs), were accompani 

ments of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymns to gods or 
heroes ; subsequently songs and dances of a wanton character were introduced. The 
most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed ckoXlu, 

Athenxus, L. % c. 9, 10. Cf. JElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41.— Respecting the ovcdXia, see P. V. § 27. 

3. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate in various 
sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced ; but in the later ages, less 
violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the Korraftos 
seems to have been a favorite amusement. There were various forms of this game, in 
all of which the chief object was to throw wine from a goblet into another vessel in the 
most skillful manner. 

See Gedoyn, Plaisirs de la table chez les Grecs ; in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. i. p. 54.— Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxiv. p. 421. 

For details respecting the cottabus in particular, Robinson, Arch. Graec. bk. v. ch. 21. p. 524.— Groddeck, ilber den kottabos 

der Griechen, in his Antiquarisehe Vermche, Lpz. 1800. — F. Jacobs, uber den kottabos, in Wicland's Attisches Museum. 

On the whole subject of Grecian meals and entertainments, see Robinson, Arch. Graec. bk. v. ch. 17-21. — /. Cornarius, De Coc- 
viviis Graecorum, in Gronovius, vol. ix.— Athenxus, Deipnosophists (cf. P. V. § 123). 

On the affairs of private life generally, W. Becker, Charicles; cf. § 13. 

4. Frequently there were entertainments called <rvpm6oia (drinking-parties), at which 
conversation and discourses were expected to form the principal amusement ; although 
the various games common at other entertainments were not excluded. The propound- 
ing of riddles (alviypara or ypujjot) was much practiced. 

See P. IV. § 69.— Eschenbach, as there cited.— Seeker's Charicles. 

§ 168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (cf. § 57) remained 
customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of 
being hospitable; the Athenians were termed <f>c.^o£fvot ; but the Spartans were 
less courteous to strangers. Hospitality was viewed as a religious duty, and 
several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and to 
avenge all injuries done to them. 

1 u. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (-Sstoj Si\g) before 
the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alliance contracted by 
mutual hospitality (-rrpoievia, to bjioTpamtfyv) was as sacred as that of consanguinity. The 
parties often exchanged tokens of it {o-v(i0o\a) in friendly gifts (X^via, dtipa, zcvina.), which 
were carefully preserved and handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly ap- 
pointed, called np6\ivoi, whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public 
errand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the public 
spectacles and festivals. 



20S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic. De 
Divin. ii.*68. — The term iravfoxtiov (caupona) designated an inn. 

Simon, on the hospitality of the ancients, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iii. p. 41. — F. W. Ullrich, De Proxenia. Berl, 
1*22.— Zcll, Die Wirthshituser d. Alten.— Stockmann, De Popinis. 

§ 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergo any very important changes ; 
at least the names used in the first period were still applied to the principal gar- 
ments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored 
white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to 
dress, purple was the most esteemed. 

1 u. Coverings for the feet (v-KoSrifxara, ircdiXa) were used very early, but not universally : 
they were of various forms. Hats (irlXoi, mXia, mXidia) were first introduced at a later 
period, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather. 

2. The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet by thongs, fytdi/rsj ; hence the terms 
v-ofclv and vttoKveTv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The following were some 
of the varieties; dpfivXai, large and easy shoes, which came up to the ankle; (the term 
tipl3v\r] is also applied to an appendage of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which 
the driver thrust his foot to assist him in driving) ; /3Xavrai, shoes worn chiefly in the 
house ; Staffadpa, shoes common to men and women ; ejx[36.Tai, shoes used by comedians ; 
Kodopvot, shoes used by tragedians, buskins ; Kapparivai, coarse shoes worn by peasants ; 
Kprj-rrTSes, a kind of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; >.a/c«- 
vimi, dp:vK\aid£s, Spartan shoes of a red color; nepo-iKal, shoes of a white color, generally 
worn by courtezans ; nepiPapiSes, shoes worn by women of rank ; cdvdaXa, shoes anciently 
peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole of the foot. 

In our Plate XXIV. are illustrations of various forms of ancient coverings for the feet and 
legs. Several, marked by the letter a, are from Mexican monuments ; those marked b and c, are 
said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and t, are from Egyptian remains ; e, g, i, k, I, m, p, and q, are Greek 
and Roman sandals', k and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them ; q having 
sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army marching with 
them must make a confused noise; cf. Rosenmiiller, Schol. in Vet. Test. Isai. ix. 5); /, n, o, are 
Dacian; h,j, v, are Persian; r is the Turkish slipper made of morocco. 

3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (cf. § 44). The nTXos seems to 
have been a sort of skull-cap of felt, being of a conical form ; varying, however, in 
elevation ; but always without a brim. A broad-brimmed hat, termed Trinxero?, was 
used by young men : it is seen in Plate XXIV. fig. 3. " Travellers among the Greeks 
wore the chlamys, sword, and petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes thrown back 
on the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their 
money in their girdles." The Kavata was similar to the neraaog, with a brim turned 
upwards. Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of 
them were the following; apmv%, a fillet, with which the hair was tied, forming on the 
forehead a frontal, which was often made of gold, and ornamented sometimes with 
precious stones ; KaXvirrpa, a veil; Kpy]k\xvov, a covering which came down from the head 
to- the shoulders ; KCKpvcpaXog, a net inclosing the hair ; p-irpa, a sort of cap or turban. The 
term pirpa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the So3pa£. A 
form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed arc^ivr) vipriXtu The opfiog 
was a sort of necklace, an ornament much worn, and often very costly (cf. § 338). The 
women frequently had also ear-rings, ep/xara, eXiKeg, evuna, eXX6/3ia. — 'Among the Athe- 
nians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments called Thnyeg. 

The term Koprt designated the hair of the head generally ; the word -9-pif, the general term for 
hair, is used in the same sense ; bu,t there were distinctive terms designating peculiar properties 
of the hair, or peculiar modes of arranging it : as h'deipa, a head of hair carefully dressed ; x a ' lTr l> 
Jong flowing hair, like the mane of a horse ; ttokAs, the hair when combed and dressed ; (poffn, 
the hair in disorder, as when a person is in fear; K6par}, the hair on the top of the head; Kopv/x- 
/?oj, the hair of women when drawn up all round the head and fastened in a bow on the top; 
KpoJftvXos, the hair of men in the same fashion ; the Athenians used the tettiI in fastening the 
bow ; paXXos, curly hair like wool ; xepas, hair combed up from the temples so as to appear like 
horns ; klkivvos, hair in ringlets, called also nXoKa/xos. 

4 u. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, an under-garment of wool, 
Xircbv, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was trussed up by a rich 
girdle ($tivr]) ; in some cases it was fastened from the shoulders by costly buckles or 
clasps {nepovai, nopm-ai). Over this garment the men wore a mantle or robe, which was 
long ((papo;, ipnrwv) as worn by the more respectable ; while the lower classes used a 
shorter kind (xAaiVa). There was also another sort of short mantle, xXa^i, worn chiefly 
by soldiers. The women generally wore over the tunic a robe (ipdriov), rather short, 
and over this a broad veil or outer robe, ttotXoj, with which they could cover also the head. 

5. The %troji/ is represented as being of two kinds, the Doric and the Ionic. The Doric cor- 
responded to the description above given, being of woolen stuff, short, and without sleeves. The 
Ionic is described as long, sometimes reaching the feet (irodfjpris), made of linen, with wide 
sleeves (Kopat). — The Ipariov or Qapos was always a rectangular piece of cloth, exactly or nearly 
square; made of wool most commonly, but also of cotton, and of flax; usually all of one color 
(iSioxpoov), sometimes variegated (noixiXov) and embroidered; sometimes ornamented with a 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. COSTUME. BATHING. 209 

fringe. It was often used to spread over beds and couches ; to cover the body in sleep ; to form 
a sort of carpet ; to serve for an awning or curtain. 

Of coverings for the body, called in general kctihs, eadrj/xa, and eifxa, there were many varieties 
and forms, besides those named above; as, (3airn, dupdepa, a shepherd's garment, of skins; 
iyKoii(5op.a, a cloak used by shepherds and servants ; e7toj//ic, a short garment for females, which 
was thrown over the shoulders ; e^oj/lu'c, a slave's garment, having only one sleeve (cf. $ 99) ; 
tipeffrpis, a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats; ^werpov, a girdle appropriate for women ; 
Sepicrptov, a thin»garment for summer ; KarwvaKr), a slave's robe, bordered at the bottom with 
sheepskin ; XrjSoc, a garment common to both sexes, suitable for warm weather; oroAr/, a long 
robe reaching to the heels ; orpocjyiov, a kind of kerchief worn by women over the bosom {trrnQo- 
Seopios); rpifiuiv, rpifidJviov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by philosophers and poor persons; 
raivia, a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast ; used also to signify an orna- 
ment for the head ; (j>aiv6Xrn, a cloak without sleeves for cold or rainy weather; xAai'ij, a fine 
thin robe. The xpiXXiov was an ornament worn, by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands ; 
a bracelet or armlet (%A«<$o3«>, d/jKbiSed). The ttzpigkeYk; was probably an anklet, an ornamental 
ring worn to decorate the leg; frequently represented in the paintings of Greek figures found at 
Pompeii; yet the word is sometimes translated drawers, feminalia. The dvalvpides were a sort 
of pantaloons (braccw) worn by the Gauls, Sarmatians, and others, both in Europe and in Asia, 
but not by the Greeks. Robinson's Arch. Gr. p. 541-546. 

Our Plate XXV. contains several engravings illustrating ancient and Oriental female costume. 
In fig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the vail; similar to it is the vail in fig. g, which is 
taken from the French work L'Egypte, &c, and represents an Egyptian spinning ; another form 
appears in fig. d, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of muffler ; in 
w, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern vail, but was attached to a 
ribin or chain passing round the forehead and joined by a clasp above the eyes. In fig. m, is a 
Grecian lady with a peculiar head-dress, somewhat resembling the spiral curl of the murez shell 
from which the Tyrian purple was said to be obtained. Other head-ornaments appear in fig. h, a 
Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fig. i, another Grecian 
in a funeral dress. The ntt above mentioned is seen in fig. 4, of Plate XXIV; in fig. 7, of the 
same Plate is a form of the turban, like the crescent-shaped tiara or diadem sometimes seen on 
representations of Juno. In these figures we also see the tunic fastened to the shoulders by 
clasps ; in fig. 4, it is without sleeves, as in fig. h, Plate XXV. This figure, k, shows also the robe 
called peplos, which is seen also in fig. k, said to represent a Grecian lady in full costume of the 
olden style ; an outer garment like the" peplos of the Greeks is seen likewise in fig. b, which 
represents a Cairo dancer, and in fig. e, which shows an oriental silk robe thrown over the head 
and arms. In fig. e and/, we have two female Bacchantes; their costume, like that of the musi- 
cian, fig. h, appears to be highly ornamented; one holds the thyrsus and a wine cup, probably 
the cnlix (cf. $ 1G7. 1); the other appears to be playing with a sort of castanets. In fig. n, is a 
representation of an Egyptian princess from the palace at Karnac ; it exhibits a slight under dress 
and a close robe in slanting folds open in front, the whole scarcely concealing the form ; it may 
illustrate the Coan vestments, or woven wind, of the ancients. A nearly transparent robe is also 
seen in fig. o, which is an Egyptian priestess holding in her right hand a sistrum, and in her left 
some mythological image probably pertaining to the worship of Isis. 

The following is an incidental remark of Chateaubriand respecting the materials of ancient clothing. " My host laughed at the 
faces that I made at the wine and honey of Attica ; but, as some compensation for the disappointment, he desired me to take notice 
of the dress of the female who waited on us. It was the very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the horizontal aud undu- 
lating folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpendicular folds which marked the skirt of the tunic. The coarse 
stuff of which this woman's dress was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for, to judge from sculpture, the stuffs of the ancients 
were much thicker than ours. It would be impossible to form the large sweeps observable in antique draperies with the muslins 
and silks of modern female attire ; the gauze of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists denominated woven wind, were never 
imitated by the chisel." Travels in Greece, &c. p. 137, (N. Y. ed. 1814). 

Respecting the material of the vestments of Cos, see § 335. On the question concerning the use of silk among the Greeks, cf. 

Anthon's Lempriere, under the word Seres. On the use of cotton, E. Baines, History of Cotton Manufacture. Lond. 1836. 8. 

(chap, ii.) 

Respecting the costume generally, see a brief account in North Amer. Rev. for July, 1838. p. 148.— Mongez, Sur habillemens des 
anciens, (Gr. and Rom.) in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 2i2.—Fosbroke's Encyclop. p. 610, 919, 
giving some illustrations drawn from the Hamilton vases. — A. Rubeneus, De Re Vestiaria Veterum. Ant. 1665. 4 ; also in Grxvius, 
vol. vi. — G. Farario, Del Costume Antico e Moderno di tutti i Fopoli. Milan, 1829. 18 vols. fol. exhibiting in vols. v. and vi. the 
costume of the Greeks.— Bardon, Hoye, &c. cited § 197. 3. 

6. The Athenian women seem to have paid much attention to the adorning of their 
persons, " They painted their eye-brows black, and applied to their faces a layer of 
ceruse or white lead, with deep tints of rouge. They sprinkled over their hair, which 
was crowned with flowers, a yellow-colored powder." At the toilet they used mirrors 
(KdroTrrpa), commonly made of polished metals; sometimes of the length of a person's 
body. 

The Bride, in Plate XXIV. fig. 4, holds a mirror in her right hand.— See Menard, Sur les miroirs des anciens, in the Mem. de 
PAcad. des Inscr. xxiii. 140.— Cf. Class. Jcurn. xvi. 152.— Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquites, vol. iii. p. 331 ; vol. v. p. 173.— Bottiger, 
Vasengemalden, iii. 46. 

§ 170. \The custom of frequent bathing and anointing continued to the latest 
period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for cleanliness and vigor 
of body. Public baths became at length very common, even in the cities 
which had not previously admitted them. They were furnished with several 
distinct rooms for undressing, for bathing, for anointing, &c, which were 
named from their appropriate uses. 

1. The public baths were furnished with various accomodations for convenience and 
pleasure. Among the separate rooms were the following : the d-no6vrf)piov , in which 
27 s2 



210 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

those who bathed put off their clothes ; the moKawrov, the " sweating room," or room 
for taking vapor baths ; the pcmncrfipiov, for the hot bath ; the Xovrpdv, for the cold bath ; 
the aktiTrrfipiov , the anointing room. 

This account of the rooms is according to Robinson, Arch. Grsec. p. 506. — For a more full 
account of ancient baths, see P. IV. $241 b. 

2u. The various ointments used had different names according to the modes and 
materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this respect, 
that it was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Sparta the selling of perfumed 
ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in it. 

3. "Every part of the body had its appropriate unguent. To the feet and legs the Greeks 
applied ^Egyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm was thought best adapted to the 
cheeks and "breasts; the arms were refreshed with balsam-mint; sweet marjoram had the honor 
of supplying an oil for the eyebrows and hair, as wild thyme had for the knee and neck. — A nice 
distinction divided perfumes into two kinds: the first were a thicker sort, and applied more as 
salves or wax (xpipara); the others were liquid, and poured over the limbs (dAeip/iara). To 
indulge in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and voluptuous disposition ; but 
the sober and virtuous, it was allowed, might use the thicker sort without any impeachment of 
their good qualities." Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263. — Persons called dXeiTrrai were employed to 
anoint the body after the washing and the rubbing or scraping with the instrument termed 
orXeyytj or \varpa. 

4 m. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were performed by women ; 
in particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as 
were highly esteemed. 

In illustration of this custom of kissing the feet, cf. Aristophanes, E0$}K£j, (p. 460. ed. Lug. Bat. 1624), and in New Test. Luke 
vii. 38 ; John xi. 2. 

§ 171. The general construction of Greek houses has already been stated 
(§ 56). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at Athens, it was 
applied to public buildings rather than private dwellings, which were mostly 
of an ordinary character. This was true also at Thebes, otherwise greatly 
celebrated for her superb architecture. Much more care was bestowed in orna- 
menting the interior apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furni- 
ture and utensils, and with elegant works of art (cf. P. IV. § 178). Besides, 
the custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or openings 
with colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, and rendered their 
beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and 
profit to construct the public edifices in a style of superior magnificence. 

1 . The common term for the whole house was o!ko$ • the eating hall was called 
rpiKkivwv and mriaropiov; the sleeping room, koit&v.< — 'Potter gives the following account 
of Grecian houses. "The men and women had distinct apartments. The part in 
which the men lodged was towards the gate, and called dvSp&v or dvfywviric ; that assigned 
to the women, was termed ywaiKwv, ywaiKuvinc, and was the most remote part of the 
house, and behind the avXrj, before which were other apartments denominated irpoSoixoc 
and npoavXiov. The women's chambers were called rsyeoi SaXapoi, as being placed at the 
top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women were usually in the highest 
rooms (wia, virspoia). Penelope lodged in such a place, to which she ascended by a 
/c\ip.at(Odyss. i. 330)."— The terms dvdPadp.dc, dva(iaBp.is, dvaj3aQpa, and dv&fiaBpov, are all 
used to designate a staircase, a flight of steps, or stairs. — Portions of the upper story 
sometimes projected beyond the walls of the lower part, forming balconies or verandahs 
(Trpo0o\al, y£Lcnro6iajxara). The roofs were usually flat ; sometimes pointed, with a ridge 
and gable. The windows or openings for light and air (Svpidec) were commonly in the 
roofs of the peristyles. The chimney (KanvoSoKri) is supposed to have been merely an 

opening in the roof. Although in general the private dwellings were of an ordinary 

character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which were very costly 
and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been more lofty and built with 
greater solidity than those at Athens. 

In our Plate XXIV. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by Stuart (Dictionary of Archi- 
tecture). His account is as follows: "The Greek house had no atrium, but instead of it the 
peristyle was approached by a passage called thyroreum. On the side of the peristyle opposite 
the entrance was a kind of vestibule called pastas ; the apartments on the right and left of which 
were termed severally thalamos and amphi-thalamos, and beyond them were the asci or halls. In 
the first peristyle were the triclinia in daily use, and the apartments of the domestics ; this divi- 
sion of the house was called gyneeconitis. In the south portico of the greater peristyle, which was 
styled andronitis, were the pinacothecs and Cyzicene ozcus ; in the eastern, the bibliotheca ; in the 
western, the exedra ; and in the northern, the great atcus, or banqueting-room. The hospitalia 
consisted of triclinia and sleeping-rooms for strangers, and were on the right and left of the great 
cecus. There were courts or passages to these apartments calle.d mesaulce. In the plan [given in 
Plate XXIV.] a is the thyroreum ; b, peristyle of the gyneeconitis ; c, the pastas ; d, the great ozcus ; 
e, stables; /,/, courts; g, g, g, porter's cellm ; h, h, common triclinia; i, the thalamus; j, the 
amphi-thalamos ; k, k, ozci or halls; 1,1, the mesaulce; m,m, the hospitalia; n, the vestibule ; o, 
the great peristyle ; p, the bibliotheca ; q, q, the pinacothecce ; r, the Cyzicene axus ; s, the exedra.'' 

2. A door iyvpa, nvXr}) was fastened by means of lock and key (kXci's) ; the key de- 






PLATE XXV. 




212 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

scribed by Homer seems to have been merely a bolt which was moved by a thong 
((//ay) attached to it(Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use. 
— Various articles of furniture are named. Although the house usually had a fixed fire- 
place (Iffria), portable stoves (caxapai) or chafing-dishes (dvdpaKia) were frequently used. 
In the sleeping room was the bed, Koirn or \txpc ; this was often in the form of the sofa, 
about six feet long and three broad ; called also x\ivr\. The chair i^pdvoc), ewer (npoxooc) 
and basin for washing (Kovrfipiov) , mirror (KdroTrrpop) and its case or stand (Xoipctov), clothes- 
chest (Kiarr)), &c. are mentioned. 

In Plate XXXII. fig. b, is a sort of hey formed by a bolt and string ; it was found at Pompeii ; 
in Plate XXIV. fig. 2, we have a Grecian metallic key, selected from a number given in Mont- 
faucon— Pig. 5, of this Plate, shows a Grecian sofa-bed, with a man in one corner and his wife 
reclining behind him. Fig. 10, of the same Plate, is another form of the Greek sofa; it is covered 
with a cushion, from which an ornamental appendage hangs over one end of the frame. Fig. d, 
of Plate XXXII. is a curious form, taken from an Egyptian monument. — Chairs (Egyptian) are 
seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, of Plate XXIV. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4.— The latter, fig. 4, 
shows also a mirror, held by the female before her face. 

Respecting the Greek house, &c. see Becker's Charicles.— Hirt's Geschichte der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4. 

§ 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce, were 
highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 

1 u. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phoenicians 
solely ; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the 
Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then chiefly monopolized by 
the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of 
her soil ; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even 
there it gradually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later pe- 
riod, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the states just named, 
Corinth and the islands iEgina and Rhodes were the principal places of commerce ; 
and their industry and enterprise contributed very much to the wealth and power of 
the Grecian states. 

2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce, being washed on three sides by the 
sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and metals, which 
came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted 
fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia ; woolen and other stuffs from Asia Mi- 
nor and Syria ; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities on the Black sea. 
They likewise exported, not only different commodities brought from foreign coun- 
tries for the purpose, but the products of Attica, which were chiefly olives and oil, 
and various articles of manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils. 

Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. lvi. — D. H. HegewischU geograph. und histor. Nachrichten die Colonien der Griechen betreffend. 
Altona, 1808. 8,— Rolling History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients.— Benedict, Geschichte der SchifiTahrt und des Handels 

der Alten. For an account of the routes by which the productions of the east were conveyed through Babylon to the countries of 

the Mediterranean, see Hceren on the Commerce of Ancient Babylon, as translated by F. M. Huhbard, in the Bibl. Repos. vol. vii. 
p. 364 ss. 

3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51), that agriculture was at 
an early period a subject of practical interest among the Greeks. Yet the art does 
not, appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any of the states. (Cf. § 58.) 
——The plow (aporpov) of the Greeks is said to have been of two kinds (tvo ei6n) ; the 
one kind, composite (jtriKTdv); the other, simple (dvroyvov). (Cf. Hes. Works and 
Days, v. 432, 436.) The principal parts of the composite were the following; the 
Igto(3ozvc or pv)xoc, beam; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong 
connecting the yoke with the beam ; the vwis or vwr,, plowshare, whose extreme 
point was called vvufyri ; it was attached to a piece of wood called eXvp.a, and connected 
with a piece termed yvm ; the exerXn, handle. 

A specimen of the simple may be seen in our Plate XXXII. fig. 6, which represents a Syrian 
plow, with a small metallic blade or share, furnishing an illustration of the metaphor of the pro- 
phet (Micah iv. 3) : other forms are seen in fig. iii. ; one of the engravings shows a single bullock 
drawing the plow, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the 
animal by a rein. 

See Mongez, Sur les instrumens d'agriculture des anciens, in the Mem. de VImtitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. ii. p. 616 ; 
vol. iii. (published 1818), p. 1. with engravings.— Cf. Rougier, as cited § 13. 5. 

4. The soil of Attica was more favorable to the production of the grape (06rpvs), olive (eXaios), 
and fig (o-vkov), than of grain (oito<;); and it was necessary to import the latter; it has been 
estimated that one-third of the quantity annually consumed was imported. The exportation of 
corn was prohibited. The sale of it was under the supervision of officers called oiroipvXaKes. 
If corndealers (airoTruXai) combined to raise the price, they were liable to capital punishment. 
In order to avoid a scarcity of corn (o-irofeia), public granaries (o-irodoxai) were kept, under the 
direction of purveyors (cnojvai) and receivers (diroSsKrai) . 

On this subject ree BockUs Public Economy of Athens. 

§ 173. Here it may be proper to give a brief account of the moneys, weights, 
and measures of the Greeks. In early times, traffic was effected only by ex- 
change of goods, or barter, the inconvenience of which must soon be felt. Rude 






P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONEY. COINS. 213 

metals were next employed, in order to render an equivalent for what was pur- 
chased, and were weighed for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value 
were indicated by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular 
coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be decided 
(cf. P. IV. § 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C. 
about 600, they were in common use in Greece. The metals used in making 
money-coins were gold, silver, brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were 
impressed only on one side. The impressions were various, both as to the 
objects represented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic 
coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird. 

1 it. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulating medium were 
these : voptapa, any legitimate coin ; xpnpa, money in the loose sense ; and xeppa, small 
coin or change. Besides these there were numberless specific names, derived from 
the weight of the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their 
face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, but were not 
names of actual coins; as e. g. the pva or uvea, and the Tokavrov. The former {pva.) de- 
signated at Athens the sum of 100 drachms ; at JEgina, the sum of 160 ; the term 
was however also used to signify merely the golden orarrjp. The latter (rdXavrov) was 
usually the sum of 6000 drachms, but had different values in different places; a talent 
of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. 

2». Of the actual and circulating coins the Xctt-oi/ was the smallest. Seven of this 
name were equal to the xaA*<%, and eight of the latter to the d/ioAdj. This last varied, 
however, in value, according to the place where it was coined. Six 6/3o\6i were equi- 
valent to the dpaxuri, which had its name from the weight, but was of different values 
in different places. The names of the coins npiwftoXwv, diuftokiov or 6i6(io\ov, rpi6/3o\ot/, 
&c, and hp.idpaxp.ov, SiSpaxpov, &c, are easily understood. Four dpaxpai were equal to 
the orarnp in silver, a coin, which was also called rtrpabpaxpov , and seems to have been 
the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The a-rarfip in gold was equal in 
value to 20 Spaxpai, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called Siepaxpos, but was most 
generally termed xpw<%. It received likewise other names from the places where,- 
or the kings under whom, it was struck; as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater Crcesi, &c. 

3. Among the coins, named from the image upon them, were the fioiis, bearing the figure of an 
ox; the Kopry, having a representation of Pallas, the maid; yAav%, with an owl for its device, 
another name for the tetradrachma. 

In Flate XL. are several specimens of Greek coins, taken from Monlfaucon's Antiquity Ex- 
plained, and from Calmet's Dictionary. Fig. 1 is a coin of Thebes ; fig. 2, of Argos ; 3, of JEgina; 
4, and also a, d, and e, are Macedonian coins ; 5, and also q, c,f, and v, are Athenian ; 6 is a coin 
of Thespire ; 7 is an iEtolian. Fig. 5 is an Attic tetradrachm, with Minerva's head on the obverse, 
and on the reverse an owl standing on a prostrate vase, the dp<popevs (amphora) or Siojrri (diota), 
with the inscription AGE , the whole encompassed with an olive crown. Fig. v is the reverse 
of a didrachm, showing an augur's wand and a sacrificial vase. Fig. / is the drachm, bearing a 
sort of tripod; fig. c is another, which has the head of a Vulcan, and on the reverse are two 
lighted torches ; on i, Apollo appears in company with the owl.— Cf. P. IV. $ 93.— For a tabular 
view of the chief coins and their relative value, see our Plate XXV a. 

§ 174 u. Various changes successively took place in the denomination of Greek 
coins. There were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual 
contents and their relative value. Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for 
money. The Spartans were required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, 
and did not depart from the custom until a late period. The common ratio between 
gold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a 
half. There are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with mo- 
dern, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the former. The Spaxpii equal- 
led about 9d sterling. 

1. The mint at Athens, or place where money was coined, was called dpyvpoKoneTov -, here 
were kept the standard weights for the various coins.— Many specimens of the silver o-rarfip or 
rerpadpaxpov are still preserved in collections. Letronne, having accurately examined five hundred 
of them, and arranged them according to the centuries in which they were struck, deduced the 
mean weight of the old Attic Spaxw, coined B. C. two centuries and more ; and the value, as 
thus derived, is stated at 17 cents 5.93 mills of our currency. The later dpaxpn is stated at 16 cents 
5.22 mills. 

2. See Conger's Essay on the Measures, Weights, and Moneys of the Greeks and Romans, in Anthonh ed. of Lempritre.—G. Crosse, 
Metrol. Tafeln uber die alt. Masse, &c. Roms und Griechenlands. (by A. G. K'aslner.) Brauns. 1792. 8.—F. C/(. Matthia, Ueber- 
sicht des rom. und griech. Mass- Gewichts- und Milnz-Wesens. Frankf. 1809. 4.— J. F. IVurm, De ponderum, etc. rationibus apud 
Romanos et Grsecos. Lips. 1821. S.—Hussey, Ancient Money, Weights, &c. cited § 274. 2.— Bockh, Ueber Monzen, Masse, und 

Gewictite des Alterthums. Lpz. 1838. 8.— Eckel, as cited P. IV. § 99. 1. On the whole subject of Greek Coins and Medals, see 

P. IV. §§ 93-99. 

§ 175. In connection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of 
their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient met bod was 
quite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, I, perhaps from la 
for Mia ; for five, II, from Itivre ; for ten, A, from A«a ; for a hundred, H, from Hcku- 



214 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tw (l/carov) ; for a thousand, X, from XtX«* ; and for ten thousand, M, from Mvpia. AH 
numbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; each combination signify- 
ing the sum of the numbers designated by the letters separately ; e. g. Ill II repre- 
sented eight ; A n I, sixteen ; A A, twenty, &c. Sometimes they were combined so as 
to express the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters ; in such case, one 
of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; 
for example, M (representing a n with a A in its bosom) signified 10 X 5, i. e. 50: so a 
n with an H placed within it signified 100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it, 
signified 10,000X10, or 100,000: this form of combination was chiefly confined to 
numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such numbers were expressed by using a large II and 
writing the letter for the other factor in its bosom. This was the old Attic system, 
and is found on inscriptions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf. P. IV. § 91. 4). 

But this method was superseded by another; in which all the letters of the alpha- 
bet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bav, Rottm, and Y.ap.m, men- 
tioned in P. IV. § 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Theta, 
expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after Epsilo?i, to sig- 
nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, expressing the tens ; the last (II) signifying 
80, and KoTura being used for 90 ; the next eight, from Rho to Omega, expressed the 
hundreds ; SI standing for 800, and Sa^m-i being used for 900. The letters, when thus 
used to designate numbers, were usually marked with a stroke above ; thus, i, 10 ; 
k , 20 : *■/?' 22. In order to express thousands, the eight first letters with Bav were 
again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus, 6, 4,000 ; r, 6,000 ; kv\6', 20,432. 

Cf. Robinson's Buttman, § 2.—Bouillet, Diet. Class. {Tableaux, &c. N. 34.) 

§ 176. The use of weights was of early origin among the Greeks, as else- 
where. Grecian weights had the same names with their coins of money, a 
circumstance which seems clearly to point back to the custom of weighing 
uncoined gold and silver for purposes of exchange. The proportions of the 
weights were different in different applications of them ; as, e. g. those of com- 
mon merchandise did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. 
The 6fio%6s is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries 
or physicians, who used a weight, termed xspatiov, about one-fourth of the 
6)3o7ms, and another, gnfdptov, only one-fourth of that. 

Cf. L. Psetus, De Mensuris et Ponderibus Rom. et Gratis. Venat. 1573. fol.— JVurm, Hussey, &c as cited § 174. 2.— See the 
tabular view given in Plate XXV a. 

§ 177. In speaking of the Greek measures, we may notice them as divided 
into measures of length, of surface, and of capacity. 

1 u. The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in most of 
the ancient nations, from members of the human body; e. g. <5d*TuAo?, a finger's 
breadth ; cmdap.fi, a span, hand's width, the distance from the extremity of the thumb 
to that of the little finger; novg, a foot. The Herculean or Olympic foot was longer. 
The nrjxvs, a cubit, was the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle 
finger. 'Opyvia, a fathom, was the distance across the breast, between the extremities 
of the hands, the arms being extended (opkyw) in a horizontal line. 

2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of surface, the principal 
were the iroijg, the apovpa, and the nXsdpov. The novg was a square with each side one 
foot ; the apovpa, a square with each side 50 iroks ; and the irXsdpov, a square with a side 
of 108 tt66es ; so that 2,500 irokg made an apovpa and 4 apovpai a n\Wpov. — The term onapriov 
seems to have been used to designate a measuring line. 

3 m. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to liquids or 
to things dry. The largest liquid measure was [xerprirhs, equal to about 8 gallons, and 
called also sometimes xadog, xepapiov, and dp.<pop£vs. The smallest measure was the Koxkiapiov, 
containing less than a hundredth part of a pint, and so called from k6x\o s or koxKiov, a 
snail-shell. The farm contained about a pint, and was equal to twice the measure 
termed KotvKri. Between the kotvXyi (half pint) and the Koxkiapwv, six intervening measures 
are named. The measure next larger than the Iform (pint) was the x^s, containing 
upwards of two quarts. 

4. The kotvXt) is said to have been applied by ancient physicians to the same use as modern 
graduated glasses of apothecaries, being made of horn, and divided on the outside by lines, so 
that certain parts of the measure corresponded to certain denominations of weight. The largest 
measure applied to things dry was the ixtSi/xpog, which contained somewhat more than a bushel 
and a fourth, and received different names in different regions. The %oiV<£ was a little less than 
a quart; forty -eight of which were contained in the ixiSiixvog. The aSoil, equivalent to the 
rin'uKTov contained four %oii/(/fej. Most of the other measures were of the same names as 
the liquid measures. 

See G. Hooper, Inquiry into the state of Ancient Measures, Attic, Roman, and Jewish. Lond. 1721. 8.— Btichh, Wurm, Sic. cited 
§ 174. 2.— Cf. the tabular view, given in Plate XXV a. 

§ 178. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were very nu- 



PLATE XXVa. 



GRECIAN 

MONEYS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 

The estimated value in our denominations 
is given according to the Tables of A. B. 
Conger, which are based on the Treatise of 
TVurm. &. the Tables of Bouillet. 



Moneys. 

1. Below the Drachm. 

Dolls, cts. m. 

A£irr6v 00 0.5 

7 1 XaX icovs - • • 3.6 

14 1 2 | Mx a^KQV • . 7.3 

28 | 4 | 2 | , H/u o/3(SAk>v . - - . . 1 4.6 

56 | 8 | 4 I 2 | 'Q/?o Xrf; 2 9.3 

112 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Aidfi oXov - - - • 5 8.6 
224 1 32 1 16 1 8 | 4 | 2 | TcTp o/itoXov - • 11 7.2 
336 | 48 | 24 I 12 | 6 | 3 1 1.5 | Apa*/^ - • 17 5.9 



2. Above the Drachm. 



Aps y/tt? 

2 | Atdpa xpov 

4 | 2 | "VtTpdSpa.xy.ov - 

20 | 10 | 5 jXp wrovs - 

100 | 50 | 25 | 5 | MvH - 



6000 | 3000 | t500 ] 300 | 60 | ^1^,^°" j 



Dolls, cts. m. 

- 17 5.9 
- • 35 1.8 

- • 70 3.7 
3 51 8.6 

- 17 59 3.2 
1055 59 3.2 



60000J30000J 15000J3000|600J 10 



TdXavrov ] 
of Gold, i 



10555 



2.6 



Measures of Capacity. 



1. For Liquids. 



Koxhi.dpt.ov 
2 I *VM - 



Gq.1. qt. 




2.5 1 1.25 | Mvcrpov 
5 | 2.5 | 2 | KrfyKJj 



10 


5 


4 |2 


Kva9os .... 


15 


7.5 


6 | 3 


1.5 


'Oiv(}a<pov ■ 


30 


15 


12 |6 


3 


2 | TirapTov • 


60 


30 


24 | 12 | 


6 


4 | 2 | KorvXr) - 


120 


60 


4S | 24 


12 


| 8 | 4 | 2 | S^<rr7,s 


720 


36 J 


288 1 144 


72 


48 | 24 1 12| 6 | Xovs 


4320 


2160 


1728|864 


432|288|l44|72|36|6 |Ai<5ttj 


The A«oi 
measure 


7] doubled formed the next and largest 
, MtTprjrijs 



pts. 
0.007 
0.015 
0.019 
0.039 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0.475 
0.950 
1.704 
0.229 



2. For Things Dry. 



Koxhid.pt.ov 
10 | Kvu8o$ - 
15 1 1.5 1 'Ofypafyov 



pk. qt. 




60 I 6 | 4 | K orvXt) - 
120 | 12 | 8 | 2 | "Bco-rris 



240 | 24 | 16 | 4 | 2 | Xorwg 



960 1 96 | 64 1 16 | 8 j 4 1 'B ^Uktov 
1920 I 192 1 12S| 32 1 16| 8 | 2 | "Ektoj 



3S 40|384 I256J64 |32|l6| 4 | 2 ] Tp irds - 
1 1 520 f 1 1 52 1 768 1 1 92 1 96 1 48 1 1 2 1 6 |3 | Mttifivos 



pts. 
0.007 
0.079 
0.118 
0.475 
0.950 
1.901 
1.606 
1.213 
0.426 
1.279 



Measures of length. 

1. Small Measures. 

Ft. In. 

AdicrvXos 0.75 

2 | KdvdvXos • 1.51 

4 | 2 | lloXaio-Ti}, or Afopov • 3.03 

8 | 4 | 2 | Atxds, or 'H/uffo'diov ..... g.06 

1 | 5 | 2.5 |K25~j At X d S 7.58 

11 1 5.5 j 2.75 1 1.375| 1.01 \ 'Ope ddtopov ..... 8.34 

12 | 6 | 3 | 1.5 | 1.2 1 1.09 | TL-niQ ay.-q .... 9 . 10 
16 | 8 [ 4 1 2 1 1.6 1 1.45 1 1.3 | Uovz - - . l 0.13 
18 | 9 | 4.5 | 2.25 1 1.8 | 1.63 \ 1.5 1 1.125] Wv yp.^ - 1 1.65 
20 j 10 1 5 1 2.5 | 2 | 1.8*1 1 1.6 | 1.25 [l.i | Ilv vdv - 1 3.17 
24 ] \l | 6 j 3 1 2.4 | 2.18[ 2 I 1.5 1 1.3 1 1.2[ n^tis 1 6.20 



2. Or eat Measures. 

Miles, 
llovs 

2.5 | Brjp.a - • 

6 | 2.5 | 'Opyvid ...... • 

10 | 4 | 1.6 | AcKdirovs, KdXa/Los - - - . 

60 | 24 1 10 | 6 ["Aiifi a • 

100 | 40 1 16.6 1 10 1 1.6 | XlX tOpov ... • 

600 | 240 1 100 | 60 1 10 1 6 | Zrd Siov .... 
1200| 480 j 200 | 120 | 20 1 12 1 2 | Ala vXos - • 

2400| 960 | 400 | 240 | 40 ! 24 | 4 | 2 | 'lirirticdv - • 
7200 j 2880 [)200l 720 j 120 | 72 | 12 | 6 [ 3 | ArfAtyo; 1 



1.11 

2.14 
0.S7 
1.75 
0.50 
1.51 



Measures of Surface. 



Tlovs ■ 
36 1 'Etan6Si)S 



100 I 2.7 | ''Akuvo. 



833.3 |23.14t| 8.3 | 'H/Us/ctoj 



1666.6 | 46.3 | 16.6 | 2 | "Ektoj 



2500 | 69.4 | 25 1 3 |l.sl "Apovpc 



Poles, sq.ft. 
001.02 



. 102.30 

3 35.79 

6 71.58 

9 107.37 



10COO J277.7 [ 100 | 12 | 6 | 4 I UXiOpov 37 157.2 



Weights. 



1. Below the Drachm. 

(Troy Weight.) 
Dwts. grs. 

A-txrov o 00.2 

7 | XaX«o£s 



28 1 4 | 'H/ uo/?dAiov - 
56 [ 8 [ 2 1 'Q/? o\(j ? . . 
112 | 16 | 4 | 2 1 Aio jioXov ■ 
336[ 48 | 12 | 6 1 3 1 ApaxM 



• 1.40 
. 5.61 

• 11.22 

• 22.44 
2 19.33 



2. Move the Drachm. 



ApaxM - - 
2 | AlSpaxnov - 



100 | 50 | Mv oi - 

5000 S 3000 1 60 | TdXavrov 



(Troy Weight.) 
Lbs. oz. dwts. grs. 

00 00 2 19.33 
• • 5 14.66 
1 2 13.48 

70 1 13 17.29 



)|5000|| 



ii I TdXavrov 
3 1 ofiEgina 



\ 116 10 16 

215 



21G GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

merous, and in the better portion of their history, various, refined, and tasteful. 
Music and dancing were among the most prominent, and were almost a neces- 
sary accompaniment of public and private festivals, entertainments, and social 
meetings. In this custom there was a regard not merely to immediate gratifi- 
cation, but also to the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical 
accompaniment were almost inseparable; at least instrumental music was 
scarcely ever practiced without vocal. There were several kinds of exercise, 
which it was common to connect with the entertainments of the banquet, and 
various social games or plays (cf. § 167). 

There was an amusement in which dancing and playing with a ball (aipaTpa) were 
connected together 1 . The game at ball was a favorite amusement, and was ranked 
among the gymnastic exercises ; five different modes are named : ovpavia, MaKvpos , 
Qcupivda, apnaa-rdv, airoppalis. There was a sort of dancing in which the dancers or tumblers 2 
(KvPiarrirripcs) flung themselves on their heads and alighted again on their feet, and made 
somersets over knives and swords. — A favorite dance is still preserved 3 in Greece, called 
liomaica. 

i Burette, Spheristique des Anciens, in the Hist.de VAcad. des laser, vol. i. p. 153. 3 See Paciaudius, as cited § 88. 2.— 

Becker, Charicles, &c. a Land. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 350. 

See Burette, De la danse des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. i. 93.—/. Mtursius, De Saltationibus Veterum, contained 
in vol. viii. of Gronovius, as cited § 13.— Jul. Cses. Bulengeri de ludis privatis ac domesticis veterum liber unicus. Ludg. 1627. 3. 
This is given also in the Class. Journ. vol. v. — On various Doric dances, cf. Milller, Hist, and Antiq. of Doric Race, bk. i. ch. vi. 

§ 179. Under the Archaeology of Greek literature notice is taken (cf. P. IV. § 63, § 65; 
of the great importance and comprehensive meaning of music (jjovcwch) in the system of 
education among che Greeks. Here we introduce some remarks on musical sounds and 
instruments. To denote what is now called the Science of Music the Greeks used the 
term 'ApuoviKfj. The subject was divided into several parts ; stated by some as follows : 
1. of sou'/uls (irepl tp66yyo)v) ; 2. of intervals (nepl diaaTri/xdroyv) ; 3. of systems (nepi crvo-r^arojy) ; 
4. of genera {trepi ytvwv) ; 5. of modes (mpl tovcjv or vojxojv) ; 6. of transition or mutation 
(~epi n£Ta(3o\rjc) ; 7. of composition (irepi neXonouas). — " The notes or sounds of the voice were 
seven, each of which was attributed to some particular planet : 1. virdrrj, to the Moon ; 
2 irapmarri, to Jupiter ; 3. Aftcaw?, to Mercury ; 4. p.io-n, to the Sun ; 5. ■Kapap.kari, to Mars ; 
6. rpirri, to Venus ; and 7. vnrn, to Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary 
order, and ascribe miarri to Saturn, and vftrrj to the Moon.' — The tone or mode, which 
the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was called vo/joc ; and they were 
called v6p.oi, as being laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four 
principal v6p.oi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these 
some add a fifth, which they call the iEolic, but which is not mentioned by ancient 
authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martial ; 
the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the iEolic, simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers 

to battle was called "OpBiog. Afterwards, the term v6p.oi began to be applied to the 

hymns which were sung in those modes." 

Robinson, Arch. Graec. bk. v. ch. xxiii. — For a fuller account of the science, see Smith, Diet, of Ant. p. 624. — Drielerg, Mus;- 
katische Wissenschaften der Griechen.— Also, Burette, Chabanon, &c. as cited P. IV. § 63.— Meibomius, Collection of ancient writers 
on Music, cited P. V. § 208. 1. 

§ 180. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of 
those who only played on instruments was called \xovaiKh ipiXfi ; that of those who also 
sang to the instrument, p.ovaiKfi ixtra [xeXoidiag. The musical instruments were divided into 
ipmvswra, wind instruments, and evrara or vevpofcra, stringed instruments. The lyre, the 
flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; but there were several others. 
— Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous was 
the lyre, which was called in Greek Kiddpa and <p6ppiy%, though some affect a distinction 
between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen thread, and 
afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in 
number, whence such lyre was called rpixopSos ; and the lyre with three strings is said 
by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes de- 
nominated daias. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, 
and hence was called etrrdxopSog, enrdepdoyyoc, and hrdyKwaaog. They struck the strings 
sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- 
ment was called in Greek KiBapi^eiv , Kpovetv trMxTpco, or Siukeiv, 6aKrv\ioig xpovetv, and ipdWeiv. 
To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This 
instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of 
which the lyre was made. — The flute, av\6g, was a celebrated instrument. It was used 
in the sacrifices of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva 
is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (irXayiavXoi). Flutes were 
made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vtppzioi avKoi, and the inven- 
tion of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also 
made of the bones of asses, and of elephants ; and likewise of reed, box, and lotus. 
The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in playing on this instrument. — The pipe 



P III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 

was called <™p<y£, and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp 
and shrill, and hence its sounds were called Ann-aXEon. On the contrary, the sound of 
the flute was grave, full, and mellow ; and hence the flute was denominated /?«p/?po/ioj." 

Besides the instruments already named, we may mention the following, arranged under the 
heads of stringed instruments, wina instruments, and instruments of percussion. 

1. Stringed instruments: va(3\a, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings 
(Jwifoca (pdoyyovs) ; ktiktU, another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians; nayadis; a lute 
with twenty strings ; doxapov, said to be of a square form and similar to the ipMpa ; 
Ktvvpa, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps without foun- 
dation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and 
in playing were struck with a plectrum (nXfjKrpov), like a modern violin ; cau/3vKri, sambuca 
(cf. Persius, Sat. v. 25), sackbul(cf. Dan. hi. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four 
strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; rpiywvov, a triangle with several strings 
of unequal length ; ipaXrrjpiov, said to be like the uaydSis , and also used for any variety 
of the lyre ; ipidvpa, a Libyan instrument of a square form. 

In Plate XXVI. are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig. 1. is a triangular form 
of the harp or lyre, by some considered as the sambuca, by others as the trigonon. Fig. C pre- 
sents a similar form ; this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Hercu- 
laneum (cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xviii. 87) ; it shows a Cupid dancing and playing. Fig. 10 is by 
some called the sambuca; having four strings apparently over a sounding board. Fig. w is an 
old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as "Timotheus's 
harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Montfaucon. Fig. 2 is a form of the 
lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. e shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- 
■ pian lyre* see Plate XL. fig. 6.)— In fig. 6, we have the hinura or violin, from Montfaucon. In fig. 7 
is a similar instrument from Niebuhr, in a side view; a front view of it is given in fig. 8, having 
Jive strings of metal wire. Fig. 3 and fig. 5, also from Niebuhr, are given in Calmet, as other 
forms of the kinura or kinnor, which have been noticed by travelers in the east. A harp con- 
sisting of seventy-two strings or wires is said to be used in Kurdistan (cf. A. Grant, p. 57, as 
cited P. I. $ 154 b). Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and seems to be the 
same instrument with three strings; it- has been supposed to represent the Hebrew shalishim 
played on by females in David's time (1 Sam. xviii. 6). In fig. / is seen a Persian violin and 
fiddler. 

2. Wind instruments:^'/^ , a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usually made of 
boxwood; yiyypa or yiyypia, a Phoenician pipe (cf. § 77. 2), short, of a plaintive note; 
[xovavXos, a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; ac-Kavkog, a sort of bagpipe. It may 
be remarked, that there was a g;eat variety of these instruments belonging to the class 
of pipes or flutes. The cvpiyl, which is called also the pipe of Pan, is of great antiquity ; 
some suppose it to be the instrument mentioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 21, cf. Compre- 
hensive Commentary) by the name of ugabh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and 
Syria; with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from jive to twenty-jive. A 
double flute is often mentioned, called also the right and left (cf. $ 238) ; the right one, or 
that held in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher tone than the 
left ; and both as blown by the performer at the same time. The male flute-player 
was termed atiX^rfc; the female, avXrirpta, or av\r]Tpls. — There were several varieties 
likewise of the caXmyl, or trumpet; as, ntpas, a Phrygian trumpet, or flute crooked like 
a horn; Kepanvh, a trumpet of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also 
to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind 
termed vSpavXis, or water-organ; the shape of an ancient organ is exhibited partly at 
least in a poem, by Optatianus (cf. P. V. § 341), describing the instrument in verses so 
constructed as to resemble its form. 

In Plate XXVI. we have also represented a number of wind instruments. Fig. 5 is the pipe 
with seven reeds. Fig. y is the single flute as given by Pfeiffer, from Niebuhr. In fig. a - ve see 
a musician blowing the double flute ; it is taken from a representation found at Pompeii (cf. Pom- 
peii, p. 260, as cited P. IV. $ 226. 1). Fig. ii. presents also, as has been supposed, the double 
flute; it is from a representation found at Herculaneum; the two parts seem to be of equal 
length. (The same appears to be the case in the views given Plate XXV. fig. h and i.)— Fig. n is 
the keras or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. t is another form, straight; by some supposed to 
represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelites in the wilderness (cf. Num. x.2). 
Fig. B shows a form of the Roman cornu. Fig. t represents a performer upon a sort of flute ; it 
is from an Egyptian monument. Fig. A is taken from an ancient altar on which is sculptured 
the funeral pomp of Hector; the figure here given leads the procession; it is a woman blowing 
a long flute with its extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet; a funeral pipe, used as an 
accompaniment to the threnc or funeral song (cf. Matt. xi. 17). See Galand, as cited $ 282. 2. — 
A description of the hydraulis is given in a treatise of the mathematician Heron (cf. Tlievenot,Vpt. 
Math. Op., cited P. V. $ 208 1. 1); a drawing, designed after this description, is found in Forkel's 
Geschichte (cited P. IV. $ 63). Cf. Nov. Coram. Soc. Keg. Gbtting. vol. ii. 

3. Instrument&of percussion: some instruments of this class were also used ; rvunavov, 
a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the other, formed of wood with 
leather drawn over it ; sometimes flat on both sides, consisting of a short hollow cylinder 
with leather or skin drawn over both ends ; beaten with the hand, or with a stick ; much 
used at the festivals of Cybele and of Bacchus; KVjx(iaKa, cymbals which were of metal 
(xa\xa) ; in the shape of two half globes ; usually large and broad ; sometimes smaller, 
so that two (perhaps those termed Kpovp.ara) were held in each hand of the player, and 
such as are used by oriental dancing-women. The * '6oiv was merely a little bell ; the 

28 T 



218 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

forms and uses of bells were various. The Kp6ra\ov is described by some as a sort of 
bell made of brass ; by others, as " made of a reed split in two and so fitted as to emit 
a sound from the touch." The auorpov, sistrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument, 
used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval frame, with several bars of metal, 
which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument 
was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was formed by placing metallic rings 
so as to move freely upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the form of a circle, 
sometimes of a triangle. 

Several instruments of percussion are exhibited in Plate XXVI. Fig. iii. is the tympanum or 
drum ; in fig. A are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called castanets. Fig. o, different 
forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the triangle with rings ; by it is a stick with a knob at 
the end, used perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands 
of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf. Dan. iii. 10).— In Plate XLV. 
representing a sacrifice to Priapus, we see two women playing on the tympanum. In Plate XXV. 
tig./, the Bacchante is playing with either the crotala or the small cymbals. The sistrum is seen 
in fig. o, of the same plate j also in the paw of the Sphinx, Plate V11I. 

On the musical instruments of the ancients, cf. Montfaucon, as cited P. II. § 12. 2. (d), vol. iii. p. 342, and Supplem. vol. iii. p. 185. 
—Calmet, Dictionary, &c. vol. iii. p. 337. ed. Chariest. 1818.— Fosbroke's Encyclop. cited § 13. p. 704,— F. A. Lampe, De Cymbalis 
Veterum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1703. 12. ; also in Ugolinus, cited § 197. 1.— Pfeiffer, on the Music of the Hebrews, translated by 0. A. 
Taylor, in the Bibl. Reposit. and Quart. Observ. vol. vi. p. 357. (with a plate )—Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, Article Instrumental- 
Musih.—J. Hawkins, History of Music. Lond. 1776. 5 vols. 4. 

§ 181. The restraint imposed upon the female sex among the Greeks has 
already been mentioned (cf. § 59). This state of subjection and degradation 
continued even in the most flourishing times. Unmarried females were very 
narrowly watched. Their apartment in the house (rtap^st>wv) was commonly 
kept closed and fastened. The married women were at liberty only to go as 
far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. 
In general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not 
without wearing a veil (xdhvrttpov). 

1 u. In Sparta, however, only married women were required to wear veils ; the un- 
married might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far more liberty at 
Sparta than at Athens. Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote an innocent 
familiarity of intercourse. But this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at 
length degenerated into licentiousness. 

On the state of female society in Greece, see Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxii. 163.— Bibl. Repos. vol. ii. p. 478.— Social Condition cf 
the ancient Greeks. Oxf. 1S32.— A. Walker, Woman physiologically considered as to Mind, Morals, &c. Lond. 1839. 8.— W.Alex, 
ander, History of Women. Lond. 1782. 2 vols. 8 — Lenz, as cited § 59.— G. Sernhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. 

2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the earlier 
ages(cf. § 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom (lord?) and shuttle (k-e/wi?) ; the 
loom was upright ; two perpendicular beams (loroiroks or keXcovtes) supporting a cross- 
beam, from which the threads constituting the warp (arfiuoyv) were hung; the woof was 
termed KpoKr\\ also tyvtpf) and podavn. They also employed the needle (dKearpa, pafi'is) in 
making garments, and various furniture for household use. Embroidery (epyov Qpvyttov 
or Qpvyiovuv, opus Phrygium) was an art much cultivated, being perhaps the most im- 
portant part of the general art of variegating in colors (noiKiXia), which was effected also 
by painting and dyeing, and by weaving. Curtains (nepovfiuara, a term applied to a gar- 
ment or any article of cloth fastened by a mpovn or brooch), and other articles, richly 
embroidered (noXvKEara), were wrought for private dwellings and for the temples (cf. $ 28). 

A splendid work on Ancient Tapestry was commenced at Paris in 1837, to be completed in 4 vols. fol. with cuts and engravings.— 
See Countess 0} Wilton, The Art of Needle-work from the earliest Ages ; with Notices of the Ancien^Historical Tapestries. 3d ed. 
Lond. 1841. 12.— Cf. Miss Lambert, Hand-book of Needle-work ; with illustrations. N. York, 1842. 

§ 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, and was 
promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties 
were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried after a certain age. At Athens 
also, all who wished to be commanders or orators, or to hold any public office, 
were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other 
hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases. 
The age at which marriage (ydpos) should be allowed was also prescribed, a 
younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter, at Athens, were 
forbidden to marry until they were thirty-five. At Sparta the usual age for 
men to marry was thirty, and for women twenty. Marriage between parties 
of near consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as im- 
proper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters 
by the same father (6/j.orta'tpi,ov$), although not those by the same mother (6fio- 
fxri+pLovc,). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a 
citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception. 



PLATE XXVI. 




220 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with severity. Although polygamy 
was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without restraint. Concubines 
(jraWaKides) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly 
common, and favored even by the whole system of religious worship. In Athens the 
most distinguished statesmen and philosophers openly associated with females of dissolute 
morals {eraipai). The city of Corinth was still more famous for licentiousness. One 
of the most odious forms of licentiousness among the Greeks was the TraiSspaoria ; how- 
ever free from impurity might have been originally the relation and the habits of inter- 
course in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved (kXeivoI or dirai) and their lovers 
((piXfiTopsg) , and whatever excellent qualities might have belonged to the Theban sacred 
hand (iepa (pd\ay%) said to have been a body of 300 composed of lovers and their beloved, 
it is nevertheless true that the hateful debauchery commonly designated by this term 
was extensively practiced. 

Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bill. Repos. vol. ii. p. 441.— On paederasty, cf. Berhardy, Grundriss 
der Griech. Lit. p. 43.—MUller, Hist, and Ant. of Dorians, bk. iv. ch. 6.— Boyd's Potter, p. 600. 

2 1. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to consult the 
parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (emrpo7ro s ). The betrothing 
was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other 
mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed 
on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called appa, dppa0wv, pvijo-rpov. The giving 
of a dowry {rcpoi^ , fzpvh) with the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens 
it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta, 
however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and 
the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered 
an acknowledgment or receipt (npoiKaa), when he took the stipulated gifts. At Athens 
it was customary before the actual marriage, to present the bride before Diana with 
offerings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dpKreia, and was designed to appease 
the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities, 
male and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore 
called yapfihoi Seoi, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into the 
marriage contract. 

3 u. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, were 
adorned with garlands and flowers. Towards the evening the bride was conducted to 
the house of the bridegroom {oIkov dyeaOac) either on foot or in a carriage (app.a). The 
bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was called ndpoxos or n-apdw^os. A pro- 
cession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music and 
dancing. When the newly married couple entered the house, it was customary to place 
or pour upon their heads figs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to 
a banquet, which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed ydp.og, and 
was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called vpevaioi, or vpheg. After 
the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber ($a\dp.o s ), which, 
as well as the nuptial bed (A&oc, XsKrpov), was usually highly decorated (Trao-ro?) for the 
occasion. The young men and maids remained without, dancing and singing the 
ent6a\dj.aov KoipririKdv, while a friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door 
(Svpcopog), This company returned to the door in the morning, and sung what was 
called the emdaXdpiov syepriKov. The nuptial solemnities occupied several days ; one of 
the days was called ardvkia ; another dndvha. 

See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthdemy's Anacharsis, ch. Ixxvii. On the marriage customs of Sparta 

cf. Milller, bk. iv. ch. iv. 

4. Children were discriminated as yvr/aioi, lawfully begotten ; voQoi, born of harlots or 
concubines; Ssrol, adopted. The paternal authority over the son ceased, at Athens, 
when the son had completed his nineteenth year. It was an ancient custom for legi- 
timate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, without respect 
to priority of birth ; allowing a small pittance to such as were unlawfully begotten. The 
father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus dis- 
inherit him by a form of proceeding termed dn-oKfipv^tg. If there were no legitimate sons, 
the estate of the father fell to the daughters, who in such a case were termed miK\r)poi ; 
but their nearest relatives might claim them in marriage. When there were no lineal 
descendants (I'/cyown) to inherit the property, it fell by law to the collateral relations 
(o-vyytveZs) ; first to descendants of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and 
the children of brothers ; next to descendants of the same grandfather with the deceased, 
to cousins and children of cousins, the issue of males in every case taking precedence 
of the issue of females; a first cousin was termed dvsxpiog ; a. first cousin's son, di>£ipiadov s . 
The heir ^Mpovojiog) was said to receive his inheritance (fXJ7poc) either by right of descent 
(dyxio-reia) or by right of consanguinity (o-vyykveia). A male heir by right of descent might 
take possession immediately; or, if any one hindered him, might bring against that one 
an action of ejectment (cpParria). Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to 
adopt whom they pleased ; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could 
not take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — Free citizens 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL RITES. 221 

were permitted to dispose of their property by will (foa&wn), after the time of Solon; 
but there were certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were signed and sealed before 
witnesses, and put into the hands of trustees (on/^A^rai) who were to execute them. 

Potter, Arch. Grace, bk. iv. ch. xv.—Blanchard, On Laws respecting Adoption, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 68. On the 

subject of inheritances, see Sir W. Jones, in his Transl. of Isseus (cf. P. V. § 104. Z.)—Bunsen, De Jure hered. Athen.— Sthbman, 
Ant. Jur. Publ. Grasc. 

§ 183. Something should be said of the Greek customs in later times in 
reference to funerals and burials. Funeral obsequies were considered as a 
sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed dYxcua, vopi,/j.a, baia. 
They were denied only to notorious criminals, traitors, and suicides, especially 
such as destroyed themselves to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like, 
whose remains, if they happened to obtain burial, were even disinterred. 

§ 184 t. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have already 
§ 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the corpse in a costly 
robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it with green boughs and gar- 
lands of flowers. The body was then laid out to view (Trporideo-dai) in the entrance of 
the house, on the ground, or on a bed (*-AiVr/) or a bier ((pspsrpov), where it remained at 
least one day, with the feet towards the gate. It was while here constantly watched. 
A vase of lustral water (dp&aviov) stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly 
before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an d/?oAd?, was placed in the 
mouth, as the fare (davdicr], TropOpiiovj due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the 
Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (heWittovto.) was also put in the mouth, to ap- 
pease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into Hades ("Adns). 

On the meaning of the term Hades, and the opinions of (he ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, see P. II. § 32. 

As a burial soon after death was supposed to be pleasing to the deceased (cf. Horn. II. xxiii. 71) 
the Greeks usually kept the corpse only- until the third day. It does not appear that they ever 
adopted the Egyptian custom of embalming the dead. 

Respecting the custom of embalming, see De Caylus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 1 19.— 7. C. Warren, Description of an Egyp- 
tian Mummy. Bost. 1S24. 8. — Granville, On Egyptian Mummies ; in the Philos. Transactions of the Royal Soc. for the year 1825. 
p. 269.— T. J. Pettigren, History of Egyptian Mummies. Loud. 1834. 4. 

§ 185 t. The funeral itself was termed iKKoiuSri, or iixpopa, the carrying forth of the 
corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. 
In Greece, generally, young persons were buried at break of day or early morning 
twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, on 
a large shield, and the bearers (veKpoQcmTai) carried it on their shoulders (<VV (pip^v), fol- 
lowed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on 
horseback, or in carriages; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. — 
Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by 
wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and plucking off 
the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were performed by 
musicians employed for the purpose (Ppfivwv e^apxoi) ; one dirge (Sprjvos) was sung as the 
corpse was borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile ; and a third, at the grave ; they 
were called oXoip-f/xol ; also taA£/«u, ra\ep.oc. 

Funeral chants are still common in Greece, termed myriologues.— See Mrs. Hemans, Greek Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Bost. 
1827. vol. ii. p. 160. 

§ 186. The custom of burning- the corpse became universal among the later 
Greeks; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly mentioned before (§ 31). 
1 1. The ashes and bones were gathered (do-To\6yiov) in an urn, and buried commonly 
without the cily, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for 
this purpose (kuXttcu, Xapvaxe;, doroOnKai, daroSoxe'ta, aopol, &c.) were made of different ma- 
terials, wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances of the 
deceased. These urns were sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which was formed 
of stone or other materials ; and to this chest, as well as to the urn, the term aapKotpdyog 
seems to have been applied. 

The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babylon to Alexandria in a splendid carriage, and 
his funeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy. The Sarcophagus in which the golden 
coffin or urn containing his remains was inclosed, is said to be now in the British Museum, 
having been discovered at Alexandria by the French in the expedition of Bonaparte, and by 
them surrendered to the English. 

E. D. Clarke, The Tomb of Alexander. Camb. 18C5. 8. Cf. also Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. p. 164. ed. N. York, 181 ">.— Quatr. 
de Quincy, Sur le char funeraire qui transporte de Babylone en Egypte le corps d'Alexandre, in the Mem de Mead, des Inscr. 
C 1 asse A' Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 315, with a plate. Cf. C dc Caylvs, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. xxxi. 86. 

On an alabaster Sarcophagus discovered at Thebes, in the tombs of the kings, Loud. Quart. Rev. xviii. 369 ; xix. 192, 401. 

Along with the corpse when buried, and with the urns containing the ashes when the corpse 
was burned, it was customary to deposit cups, phials (tpiaXiSec.), vases (Xfixvdoi), of different 
kinds, and other articles ; many of which have been found in modern times by searching ancient 
sepulchers. These vessels are sometimes of terra cotta, sometimes of alabaster, not unfreqtiently 
of glass. Some made of the latter material have been gathered from the catacombs in the island 

T 2 



222 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades (cf. P. V. $ 146). " Among the decayed bones are 
found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for the ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases (cf. 
$341. 7), with large quantities of glass, earthen, and copper vessels, probably for oils and per- 
fumes. . . . Many earthen cups are of the form we call Etruscan ; the larger are painted 
with a light pencil ; often only the outlines are given, but generally with much spirit. The ques- 
tion whether the ancients knew the use of glass, was settled by the discoveries in Pompeii j this 
is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are generally flat at the bottom, and 
four inches over; they rise one inch, of this diameter, and then suddenly narrowing to the dia- 
meter of an inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches ; their shape is much 
like that of a candlestick : but I have several other forms, running through a considerable 
variety." 

The above quotation is from Jones's Sketch of Naval Life. N. Haven, 1829. 2 vols. 12.— Cf. Sillimari's Journal, vol. xvi. p. 333, 
for engravings of some of these vases. — Specimens of the vases found at Milo are in the cabinet of Amherst College. — For further 
notices of the urns and vases found in sepulchers, see § 341, and P. IV. § 173. 

2 t. The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulogy, with 
games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases, were repeated on 
successive anniversaries ; the sacrifices and offerings in honor of the dead were various ; 
rpira, those offered on the second day after the funeral ; twara, on the ninth ; rpiaKdSes, 
on the thirtieth, when the time of mourning expired, which at Sparta, however, was 
limited it is said to eleven days : x°«' and ivayio-para, libations and offerings of flowers 
and fruits at various times ; yivwm, offerings on the birth-day of the deceased ; vsxvcna, 
offerings on the anniversary of the death. — In the case of such as had died in war, the 
oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as 
so important that the speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates. 
Thus Pericles was appointed, when the Athenians solemnized a public funeral for those 
first killed in the Peloponnesian war (Thucyd. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same 
honor was rendered to those who fell in the fatal battle of Chaeronea (cf. Mitford's 
Greece, ch. xlvii. sect. 6). 

For a very interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of the dead, the 
student is referred to the twenty-third hook of the Iliad, where Homer gives an account of the 

funeral of Patroclus. Solemn games with rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor 

of his friend Hephfestion at Ecbatana; the whole ceremonies of the funeral were conducted 
Avith great magnificence, according to Arrian (lib. vii). Diodorus Siculus speaks also particu- 
larly of HephEestion's funeral pile. 

Cf. Canute de Caylus, Le bCtcher d'Hephasstior:, in the Mem, Acad. Inscr. xxsi. 76. — Quatr. da Quincy, on the same, in the Mem. 
de Vlnstitul, C 1 a s s e VHist. et Lit. Anc. iv. p. 395, with a plate. ^ 

The custom of honoring by festivals the anniversary of the death of friends and eminent per- 
sons was followed by some Christians of the early ages, in the celebrations termed paprvpuv 
yevWkia. "These festivals were preceded by vigils, and celebrated around the graves of the 
martyrs, where their lives were read, and eulogies pronounced, the sacrament administered, 
and public entertainments given gratuitously by the rich." 

See L. Coleman, Antiq. of Christian Church, p. 441. — J. P. Schwale, De Veneratione erga Martyres in prim. Ecclesia. Lips. 
174S. 4. 

§ 187. The sepulchral monuments of distinguished men were built often 
with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also frequently erected to 
them in other spots, where their ashes were not deposited. 

1. In early times, the Greeks were accustomed to place their dead in repositories, 
made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were sometimes made repo- 
sitories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered eminent public services. But 
in later ages it became the general custom to bury the dead without the cities and 
chiefly by the highways. At Athens the most common place of burial was near the 
road leading to the Peirasus, outside of the Itonian gate, which on that account was 
styled the burial gate (fipiat -rrCXai) ; those who had fallen in battle, however, were buried 
in the outer Cerameicus, at the public expense. Graves at first were mere openings 
dug in the earth, v-rroyaia. Soon there was a custom of paving and arching them with 
stone. The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound 
of earth (x^p-a) ; which sometimes had a circular basis of masonry (Kpnms). On this a 
rude stone (o-rjpa) was placed afterwards ; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a cippus 
or truncated column ; at length, larger and more imposing monuments were built. 

2. The terms pvrjpa and pynpeTov were applied to designate the whole structure, include 
ing the receptacle for the remains and the monumental erections. Two parts are dis- 
criminated ; (1) the grave strictly, called S-j?^, cmfiXcuov, rvpfios, raqbog, ripiov, which last means 
specially the portion under ground ; (2) the space around it, usually fenced with poles or 
a sort of balustrade, called Spiyxds , o-Karri, mpioiKoSopn, epKog, o-nxdg ; within this space the 
monumental pillars (o-Trj\ai) and ornaments were erected. 1 — The various monuments have 
been discriminated under four heads ; 1. crf?Aa<, designating upright tablets terminating 
in an oval heading called i-rrW-npa, but applied to any form of sepulchral pillars ; 2. icioves, 
columns ; 3. rpdne^ai, flat horizontal tablets ; 4. iiptoa or vaidta, small buildings in the 
form of temples. — On the pillars, or other structures forming the tomb, were placed 
inscriptions (emypoxpai) ; and often images of the deceased (dydXpara), and also other orna 
ments, with devices denoting their character and pursuits or particular achieve- 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONUMENTS FOR THE DEAD. 223 

ments. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on that 
of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and cylin- 
der. Tombs adorned with sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered at Athens and 
other places. Some of the most remarkable Greek tombs were recently discovered 
in Lycia. 

See De Boze, Descript. d'un Tombeau, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad, des Inscr. iv. 648.— Archseologia, (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), 
vol. xiii. p. 2S0, on a Greek sepulchral Monument ; with a plate.— Also, specially, Becker's Charicles ; and Stachtlberg. Die Griber 

der Hellenen. Berl. 1837. On the tombs of Lycia, C. Fellows, Account of Discoveries in Lycia, a Journal kept during a second 

Excursion in Asia Minor. Lond. 1841. 8. with thirty-eight plates. Cf. C. Fellows, Journal during an Excursion in Asia Minor. 
Lond. 1839. 8. with twenty-two plates. 

3. Cenotaphs (Kevora&ia, K£vf)pia) were monuments erected for the dead, which were not the 
repositories for their remains. They were raised both for persons who had never obtained a 
proper funeral, and also for such as had received funeral honors in another place. It was a 
notion of the ancients, that the ghosts of unburied persons could not be admitted into the regions 
of the blessed without first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one perished at sea or 
where his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build an 
empty tomb, and by certain rites and invocations call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. 

4. A common place of sepulture for many individuals was called rrorwavSpiov. — The term 
Koinnrnpiov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Christians, in accordance with their 
faith, that the grave is but a temporary sleeping -place. The early Christians protested against 
the practice of burning the bodies of the dead, and followed the Jewish custom of burying them. 
In the fourth century, an open space near the church was appropriated for the burial of princes 
and the clergy, which was afterwards made common to all the members of the church. In 
earlier periods, the Christians buried their dead chiefly in subterranean excavations, which were 
often of vast extent, and which in those days of persecution served at once as the home of the 
living and the repository of the dead. See $ 341. 8. 

5. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to 
such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor 
of the monument erected to Mausolus (cf. P. II. § 72) occasioned the word Mausoleum 
to be applied as a common name to .such structures. It is said to have been more than 
400 feet in compass, surrounded by 36 beautiful columns. 

See De Caylus, Tombeau de Mausole, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvi. 321.— Sainte Croix, Tomb, de Maus. in the Mem. de Pin- 
stitut, C 1 a s s e VHist. &c. ii. 506. 

In our Plate XVIII. are some specimens of monumental structures. Fig. 1 represents a tomb 
of white marble at Mourghab in Persia, corresponding to the ancient Pasargada ; it has com- 
monly been supposed to be' the Tomb of Cyrus, which was erected by himself, and visited by 
Alexander (cf. Jlrrian, vi. 29) ; some, however, declare it to be a more modern structure. Cf. 

Moricr, cited P. IV. $ 243. 3. Fig. 2 represents a structure called- Absalom's Pillar, which 

stands near Jerusalem (cf. P. I. $ 168 b). In the time of Josephus there was a marble structure 
by this name, said to have been reared by Absalom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). The one here given is, 
however, no doubt, comparatively recent. "The lower portion is quadrangular, standing 
detached from the living rock, from which it was hewn. Upon the four facades are cut Ionic 
pillars, above which is a frieze with Doric metopes and triglyphs. Over this basis rises a square 
piece of masonry, smaller; and the whole is crowned by a tall conical tower ;" and the "dome 
or cupola runs up into a low spire, which spreads a little at the top like an opening flower." Cf. 

Robinson, as cited P. I. $ 171. vol. ii. p. 519. Fig. 3 gives a view of the Tomb of Cestius at 

Rome; cf. P. IV. $ 226. 1 : it is taken from Pronti, cited P. IV. $ 243. 2. Fig. 4 presents the 

gales of a tomb ; over them is a Greek inscription, Glycon and Hemera to the infernal gods ; Mer- 
cury, with his wand, is represented as in the act of closing or opening them, it being a part of his 
office to introduce departed spirits into Hades. See P. II. $ 32. 1. $56. Cf. Calmet, Dictionary, 
&c. vol. iii. p. 279. Chariest. 1813. 



PLATE XX Via. 



ATTIC CIVIL INSTITUTIONS. 



Classes of the Population. 

These were— Citizens, UoXItcu ; Residents, MiroiKoi ; 

Slaves, AovXoi ; and Strangers, 'B.tvoi. 
XioXXrai, divided by Cecrops into 4 Tribes, $*5Xai ; 

Each ivXii into 3 Races, iparptai, "EBvtj ; 

Each $ parp(a into 30 Kindreds, V£vt), TpiaicdSt? ; 

His Tiibes, KtKponls, AirdxB(ov, 'A/craia, TlapaXCo 
Tribes, by Clisthenes, ten ; afterwards, twelve. 
Solon's 4 Classes, Ilevra/coo-to/t^Jt/Avot, 'Iirnels, 

Zevylrat., OrJTts ; according to wealth. 
A division also into 174 Ar/pot., or Wards. 



Various PuMic Officers. 



1. For the Executive. 

The Eleven, 'Oi "EvSeKa ; a sort 
of Sheriffs the No//.o0vAa/c£$ 
. perhaps the same. 

The Lexiarchi, Arfelapxoi i s ' x 
chief; 30 subordinate. 

The Toxotx, Togrfrat ; 1000. 

2. For the Legislature. 

The President 'E7U<rrtfTijc 

of Senate, ttjs BouA^j. 

The President 'E7ri<rra7-?js 

of Assembly, rrjs 'EmcXrjcnas. 
The Proedri, Ilpdedpot,. 
The Prytanes, HpvTaviTs. 
The Nomothetx, No/jLoddrai. 
The Syndics, Ztivducot,. 
The Orators, 'Prjropts, same as 

Lwrjyopoi.. 
The Ephydor, 'EfyvSwp, having care 

of the Clepsydra. 
The Syngraphs, Zvvypaids ; 30, 

who collected the votes. 
The Clerks, rpa/i/tarsts. 
Heralds, K?jpri/c£C. 
Ambassadors, Upto-ftus. 
The Pylagori, XlvXayopoi, delegates 

to the ' Ap.(j)MTVovla. 

3. Connected with the 

Courts. 

The Areopagilx, 'ApuoTTayiTai. 

The Heliastx, 'HXiacrTai. 

The Ephetx, 'E^irai. 

The Tribe-kings, $vAo/?ao-tA£tc. 

The Paredri, Xldptdpoi, who sat in 

Courts held by Archons. 
Dicasts, AiKavTal. 
Accountants, Aoyio-Tal. 
Directors, 'EvBvvol. 
Summoners, KX-qropsS- 
Ushers, KiyKXlSes- 
4. For Public Works and 
Lands. 

Superintendents 'EnKTrdrai. 

of Buildings, riav 'Epyajv. 
Superintendents 'Emo-rdTai. 

of Waters, twv tidariav. 

Guard of Founts, Kpqv o<l>vXa%. 
Surveyors C Ways, 'OSoisoiol, 

of \ Walls, Tcixonoiot. 
Astynomi, 'Ao-rvvdpoi, having care 

of streets, &c. 



Clerouchi, KXrjpovxoi., to divide 
lands in colonies; applied also to 
the settlers. 

5. For the Treasury. 

Chief Tamias, Ta/Uaj Trj$ Akh- 
kij(7£ujs ; for 5 years. 

Sub-Treasurers, Ta/uovx 01 i 
TapCas rajv o-TpaTtuiTiK&v, 
Ta/Uac raiv S-ecuptiiuiv, &c. 

Collectors of Fines, UpdKropes- 

Tax-gatherers, 'E/cXoyEij. 

Hellenotamix, 'EXXrjvoTa/iCai, for 
the Tribute from Greek allies. 

Poletx, XlaoXTjrai, ten overseers of 
sales. 

Theori, Qtuipol, deputies with pre- 
sents for festivals, &c. 

Assessors of taxes, 'E;riypa0£ts. 

Registers of accounts, Aiaypatp £ij. 

Auditors, 'AvTiypa<p£T$. 

Receivers, 'AnoSiKrac. 

Colacrelx, KtuXaKpeTal, for money 
due to the temples. 

Searchers, on Debts, Zr\Tr\ra\, 
on Confiscations, Mdo-rripes- 

6. Connected with Trade. 

The Sitophylaces, Eiro^XaKEj. 
The Sitonx, Eirouvat. 
The Sitometrx, En-o/i£Tp<u. 
Overseers of Port, ' En iixtX-nral 
'E/nropwv, or Tiui> vewpCmv. 

r Weights, Merpovofiot, 
. < Markets, 'Ayopavd/toi, 
{.Fish, 'Oxfjovopot. 
Pilots, T<Sav$vXaK£S- 

7. For Manners and 
Morals. 

GOnoptx, 'OivdnraL, to notice wine- 
mixing at banquets. 
Gynxcocosmi, Twai/co/cde/iot., to 

watch the dress of women. 
Gynxconompi, TwaiKovd/ioi, to 

guard the conduct of wpmen. 
Phratores, $pdropts, to see to the 

register of births. 
Sophronists, 'LuKppovi<rrai, over 

youth in Gymnasia. 
Orphanistx, ' O p<pavt,aral , to take 

care of orphans. 
Episcopi, 'EmarKoirot, overseers of 

allied cities and colonies; occasional 

office. 



The Legislature. 

Assembly, 'E/ocXijo-ta, of all the TloXlrai,. 
Senate, BovX}/, of 400 at first; then 500; 
finally 6t0 ; 50 from each tribe; by lot. 



The Executive. 

Archons, 'Ot "Ap^ovrES ; Nine, by lot; the 
'EiuavviAos, the Bao-iXEis, the XloXepLap- 
Xos, and the six 0£(r/io0£rai ; forming the 
State Council. 



The Judiciary. 

Areopagus, 'Ap«d7rayos; at first, Supreme. 
Epidelphinium, 'Enl AeXfavCu), ~) in 
Epipalladium, 'Ertl TlaXXa6C(f>, ! Actions 
Epiprytaneum,'Enin.pvTavel(i>, j of 
Enphreattium, 'Ev ipcaiToT, J Blood. 
Helixa, 'HAiafo, the Highest ; -^ 
Five others; Xlapd[iv<rrov, ( in Civil 

Tptyoovov, Kaivdv, Td iixl [ Actions. 

Avkov, and Td MnrCxov, J 

The Dixtelx, AiaiTTjTal ; two kinds ; public, 

KXrjporot ; private, aiptrol ; Arbitrators or 

Referees. 
The Forty, Tto-aapdnovTa, a Circuit Court 

for the Atj/j.01. 
The Nautodicx, NavroSCicai, in naval affairs ; 

at Tirseus. 
The Exetastx, 'E&Taa-ral, of 10 Aoyio-ral 

and 10 'EvQvvol ; on accounts of officers. 
The Thesmothetx, Qtu 11.08 irai, on subjects 

not falling to other Courts. 



Actions in law. 

Public, At/cat o"i//4o'trtat ; which included 
Vpa<p'h, idvis, "EvSulis, 'Arrayioy?), 
'E<pijyr]cn.s, 'AvdpoXvtpla, 'Eicayy£Xia; 
under the rpa<j>?) came the highest crimes; 
murder, &c. 

Private, ACicai iSCai ; including actions for 
trespass, BXa/3^s ; theft, &c. 



Punishments. 

Fine, Zrinia; Disgrace, 'A-n/u'a; Slavery, 
AovXtla ; Branding, Eriy/ia ; Posting, 
EtijXij ; Bonds, Afcr/io'i ; Banishment, 
$vy}j ; Death, Qdvaros ; 'Oo-Tpa/aav<ds 
was Banishment for 10 years. 



Civic Honors. 

First Seat, TLpoeSpta ; Statues, 'EiKdvcs ; 
Crowns, Z.Tl<pavoi; Exemption, 'ArtXua; 
Pension, by Eittjitic iv Upvravtiip. 



Revenues. 

Fines, Tifi'fijiaTa ; Tributes, $6poi; Rents, 
T£Xr) ; Contributions, ' Eisfopal ; Services, 
Aurovpyiai ; the latter including Xopij- 
yla, Tvpvaaiapxla, 'EvTlaais, and 
Tpi7)pap%«'a. 



Expenditures. 

Public Works, "Eypa Srjfida-ia j 

Festal Shcnvs, IIo/i7rai , K. T. A. 

Donatives, Aiavo/ial ; 

Theatric Fee, Aiiu/SoXta ; 

Pay of Senate, Mio-Bos BovXevtikos ', 

Pay of Assembly, Mio-Bbs EKKXrjtriao-TiKds ; 

Pay of Army, Mio-Qds ZrpaTuuniccs ; 

Pay of Navy, Mi<r6ds Noutikoj ; &c. 



324 



ROMAN ANTICIUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather than antiqui- 
ties to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, and the extent of 
their empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and a few remarks upon them, 
will aid in getting a better view of the Roman antiquities, and enable one to 
understand and appreciate more correctly the people and their more important 
peculiarities. Some notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and 
then something respecting the Romans themselves. 

§ 189. According to the common accounts of history, the city of Rome was 
founded 752 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand-children of the Alban king 
N umitor.^ It was situated not far from the mouth of the Tiber, in Latium, a 
province in middle Italy. In the beginning it was of small extent, confined to 
Mount Palatine, on which it was built. The number of inhabitants did not 
amount to 4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called op- 
pidum, while the better part, later built, was called urbs, which became at 
length a general name for Rome. It was first peopled by some families from 
Alba Longa, and afterwards by various accessions (cf. P. IV. § 109, 110); 
partly of the vagabond and worthless from the neighboring people of Italy. 

1 u. ^he Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the Palatine, and at last five other 
mountains or hills were included in the city, and thence was derived the epithet septi- 
collis. The first walls around the city were low and weak ; Tarquinius Priseus and 
Servius Tuhius improved them. 

2 n. Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of the city 
were the capture and burning of it by the Gauls, 385 B.C., and the erection of nu- 
merous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and after the conflagration under Nero. 
In the two last-mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly enlarged and adorned, and 
continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors down to the time of Ho- 
norius. In his reign occurred the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under 
Alaric, A. D. 410. The city was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodoric. But by 
that disaster, and the still greater devastations of the Gothic king Totila, A. D. 547, 
it lost much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the ages following. 

3 u. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, there is 
a vast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of the latter we find only 
certain traces and monuments, and these are in part mere ruins and fragments. 

P. Macqiiier, Romische JahrbUcher, oder chronol. Abriss der Gesch. Roms ; aus dem Franz, mit Anmerk. von C. D. Bech. 
Leipz. 1783. 8. 
A more particular notice of the topography of Rome is given in P. I. §§ 51-71. 

§ 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the republic 
and beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was very great. The 
number of citizens may be estimated at three hundred thousand, and the whole 
number of residents at two millions and upwards. 

" Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only form conjec- 
tures. Lipsius computes them, in its most flourishing state, at four millions." {Adam.) 
Tacitus (Annals, L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in the reign of Claudius the 
number of Roman citizens amounted to nearly seven millions; it is supposed that 
this number must have included the citizens in other places besides the city of Rome 
itself. — Gibbon has the following remarks on the population of the Roman empire : 
"The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of pro- 
vincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of accuracy as the 
importance of the object would deserve. We are informed that when the emperor 
Claudius exercised the office of Censor, he took an account of six millions nine hun- 
dred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, who with the proportion of women and 
children must have amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of 
subjects, of an inferior rank, was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighing with 
29 225 



226 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

attention every circumstance which could influence the bakujce, it seems probable 
that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there 
were citizens, of either sex and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal 
in number to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. The total amount of this im- 
perfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and/ twenty millions of persons ; a 
degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the 
most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of govern- 
ment." 

De la Malle, Sur la population libre, &c. de la Republ. Rom. in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, C lasse de Hist, et Lit. Anc vol. x. 461. 
— R. Wallace, Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind in Ancient and Modern Times. Edinb. 1753. 8. — Hume, Essay on the 
Populousness of Ancient Nations.— Amer. Quart. Register, vol. ix. 140. 

§ 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six thousand 
paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings considerably enlarged 
the dominion of Rome. During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly 
and widely spread, and at length, by numerous and important conquests, a 
great part of the known world was subjected to her sway. 

1 u. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire were the Euphrates 
on the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, and Mt. Atlas on the south, 
the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some 
of the succeeding emperors, even these limits were transcended. 

The following countries were subject to Rome: in Asia ; Colchis, Iberia, Alba- 
nia, Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palaestina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of Asia Minor : in Africa ; 
Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gcetulia, Africa Propria, Numidia, and Mauretania: 
and in Europe ; Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhoetia, Noricum, Illyricum, Ma- 
cedonia, Epirus, Grascia, Thracia, Moesia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to 
these were a number of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to 
which Britain may be added. 

2 u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The empe- 
ror Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and separated Italy, Spain, 
Gaul, Aquitania and Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into provinces. — One 
of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine the Great, who divided the 
empire into four Prsefect urates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for 
the government of which he appointed a number of new magistrates (cf. § 309. 3). 

The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its various changes, is found in Onuphrii Panvinii Romanum Im- 
perium, in the Thesaurus Antiq. Rom. of Grzvius, vol. i. — Cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall, &c. ch. 1. 

§ 192. In a few centuries the Romans acquired a greatness and power, which 
is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all history. 

1 u. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warlike character, for 
which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior 
prowess constituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agricul- 
ture were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly occupied in 
their constant wars ; the proportion of soldiers compared with the rest of the citizens 
is estimated to have been as one to eight. All the early Romans felt an equal interest 
in defending their country, because the conquered territory was divided equally among 
them. In addition to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of 
maintaining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the govern- 
ment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other nations. 

2 m. To treat of these topics belongs to history ; yet a brief view of the principal revolutions 
in Roman affairs seems to be necessary for our object. 

§ 193 u. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. Accord- 
ing to the common accounts (not altogether certain, however,) six other kings 'suc- 
ceeded him ; Numa PompiJius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinius Pris- 
ons, Servius Tullvas, and Tarquinius Superbus ; men of active enterprise, who con- 
tributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circum- 
stances or events, during the regal form of government, were the division of the peo- 
ple into Tribes, Curiae, Classes, and Centuries ; the separation of Patricians and Ple- 
beians ; the establishment of the senate, and of the religious worship; the settlement 
of the mode of computing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxa- 
tion ; and the introduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that 
the principles of the government under this first form were not strictly monarchical, 
but rather of a mixed character, and really laid the foundation of the subsequent ad- 
vantageous system of the republic. During this whole period, the Romans were in- 
volved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war contributed to their success, 
for they never would make peace until they had conquered. The regal government 
continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 509, because the last king, Tarquinius 
Superbus, had provoked the nobility by arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by 
heavy impositions. 



p. HI. INTRODUCTION. 227 

The immediate occasion of Tarquin's expulsion and the abolition of the monarchy, is said to 
have been the vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, by Sextus Tarquinius, 
the king's son.— Cf. Goldsmith's Rome, by Pinnock; p. b5. ed. Phila. 1835. 

% 194 u. Rome was now a free state, at first aristocratical, and then for a period 
governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustained by their 
tribunes, constantly increased. During this time the dominion of the Romans, as 
well as the vigor of their constitution was augmented ; their legislation was judicious ; 
and their morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable period they maintained an 
elevated national character, in which simplicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit 
of enterprise, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest 
patriotism, were prominent traits.—- The most brilliant era in the Roman republic was 
the first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during 
the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in posses- 
sion of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption of morals ad- 
vanced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the 
victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and officers amidst the 
luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each of these 
things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and effemi- 
nacy, the Romans now suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, 
although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations 
an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. 

A valuable work on this subject is the following : Chr. Meiners, Gesehichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der 
Romer. Leipz. 1782. 8 —Also, by same, Gesehichte des Verfalls der Sitten, Wissenschaften und Sprache der Romer in den ereten 
Jahrhunderten nach Ch. Geburt. Wien und Leipzig, 1791. S. — More minute, but especially instructive, is Ad. Ferguson's Rise and 

Prog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. V. § 299. 7. On the state of morals in ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv. 

p. 579. 

$ 195 u. Selfisrihess, avarice, and lust of power were immediate consequences of 
this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy disorders in the 
state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. 
Octavius at last gained the point, and under the name of Augustus was the first pos- 
sessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourish- 
ing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulers. But 
much more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who dis- 
graced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these, 
the already prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession 
the most violent and fatal internal commotions ; the right of the strongest triumphed 
over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to prop up the sink- 
ing dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin. 

Goldsmith's Rome, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Cf. P. V. § 299. 7.— Bridge's Roman Empire under 
Constantine the Great. 

§ 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their 
history must be crowded with interesting and instructive incidents : and that a 
familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. 
The utility of studying the Roman antiquities needs, therefore, no further re- 
commendation. 

1 u. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiquities hi 
order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages, 
which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every one, in 
fact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refinement and taste. It is essential 
as a help in reading the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved, 
and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 

2 u. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn, 
are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the historians. There are 
also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, 
and being strangers, many things must strike them as more important and remarkable 
than they might seem to the native citizens. Among the latter class of writers are 
Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian and Dion Cassius, and even some 
later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &c. Some aid may be derived also from 
the writings of the Christian Fathers. 

3 u. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science. 
The materials drawn from the sources just named, and various others, have been di- 
gested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches 
of the subject have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhaps never 
been done with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimi- 
nation ; the essential has not been sufficiently distinguished from the less important, 
nor the general and universal from the particular and local ; nor has there been suita- 
ble care to note the periods in which the customs and principles were introduced, 
made prevalent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than 



228 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



avoid in the brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot be fully re- 
moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. 

E. Plattner, Ueber Wissenschaftliche BegrUnduDg und Behandlung der Antiquitaten, inbesonders der R6m. Marb. 1812. 8.— 
F. A. Wolf, Vorlesungen Uber Alterthums wissenschaft, &c. aa cited P. V. § 7. 9. 

§ 197. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 

1. The largest Collections of separate treatices are the two 
following : 

Jo. Georg. Grxvius, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum ; 
c. fig. Traj. ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 vols. fol. (For an account 
of the contents of this, see Appendix to Kcnnett, cited below.) 

/. M. Polenus, Supplement to Graevius and Gronovius. Ven. 
1737. 5 vols. fol. 

Alb. Henr. de Sallengre, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. 
Com. 1716-19. 3 vols, fol. 

Very useful on account of its copiousness and its good refer- 
ences, is Sam. Fitisci Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. Com. 1737. 
3 vols. fol. 

As a system formally arranged, may be mentioned, Jo. Rosini 
Antiq. Roman. Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. Tho. Dempsteri. 
Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. /. F. Reitzius.) Amst. 1743. 4. 

Some pertinent treatises are contained in B. Ugolinus, Thesau- 
rus Antiquitatum Sacrarum, complectens selectissima clarissimo- 
rum virorum Opuscula ; in quibus Vet. Hebraeorum Mores, Ritus 
Sacri, &c. illustrantur: Opus ad Philologiam Sacram et Profanam 
utilissimum. Venet. 1744-69. 34 vols. fol. 

Meusel, as cited § 240, vol. 3d exhibits the writers on Roman 
Antiquities, &c. 

2. Under the class of Manuals are the following : 
Thos. Godwyn, Roman Antiquities, 15th ed. Lond. 1689. 4. 

B. G. Slruvius, Antiquitatum Romanarum Suntagma. Jen. 
1701. 4. 

W. Baxter, Glossarium Antiq. Romanarum. Lond. 1726. 8. 

Bas. Kennctt, Roma; Antiquas Notitia, or the Antiquities of 
Rome, in two Parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have been many 
later editions ; first American, Phil. 1822. 8. 

G. H. Nieuvort, Rituum, qui olim apud Romanos obtinuerunt, 
succincta explicatio. 14th ed. Berl. 1784. 8. 

C. G. Swartz, Observationes ad Nieuportii Compendium an- 
tiquitatum Romanarum (ed. A. M. Nagel). Alld. 1757. 8. 

C. /. H. Haymann, Anmerkungen Uber Nieuport's Handbuch 
der romischen Alterthumer. Dresd. 1786. 8. 

Christ. Cellarius, Compendium Antiq. Rom. cum adnot. /. 
E. Im. Malchii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. 

G. C. Maternus von Cilano, Ausfuhrliche Abhandlung der 
rdmischen Alterthumer, herausgegeben vonG. C.Mler. Altona, 
1775-76. 4 vols. 4. 

C. G. Heynii Antiquitas romana, inprimis juris romani. 
Gott. 1779. 8. 

P.F. A. Nitsh, Beschreibung des hauslichen, wissenschaftli- 
chen, sittlichen, gottesdienstlichen, politischen und kriegerischen 
Zustandes derROmer, nach den verschiedenen Zeitaltern der Na- 
tion, by /. H. M. Ernesti. Erfurt, 1812. 2 vols. 8.— Same work 
abridged (by Ernesti). Erf. 1812. 8. 

K. Ph. Moritz, AN60T2 A, oder Rom's Alterthumer. 1st part 
(of the sacred rites of the Romans). Berl. 1791-97. 8. 2d part 
(of the civil and private affairs), ed. by F. Rambach. Berl. 1796. 

Alexander Adam, Roman Antiquities, &c. Edinb. 1791. 8. 
Often reprinted. An improved ed. by James Boyd. Edinb. 1834. 
12mo. Another ed. by /. R. Major. Oxf. 1837. 8.— Transl. into 
German, with improvements, by /. L. Meyer (3d ed ) Erlang. 
1818. 2 vols. 8. 

J.K. linger, Sitten und Gebrauche der Romer. Wien. 1805-6. 
2 vols. 8. with plates. 

G. G. K'opke, Antiquitates Romanas, in xii. tab. descr. Berl. 
1808. 

L. Schaaff, Antiquitaten und Archaologie der Griechen und 
Romer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. Alterthumskunde). Magdeb. 
1820. 8. 

F.Creutzer, Abriss der rOmischen Antiquitaten zum Gebrauche 
bei Vorlesungen. Leipz. 1824. 8. 

/. D. Fuss, Roman Antiquities. Translated from the German. 
Oxf. 1840. 8. 



The 5th vol. of Wolfs Vorlesungen, as cited P. V. § 7. 9, treats 
of Roman Antiquities. 

Less extensive, but useful and instructive, is the following: 
/. H. L. Meierotto, Ueber Sitten und Lebensart der Romer, in 
verschiedenen Zeiten der Republik. Berlin, 1814. 8. (Ed. Ph. 
Butlmann). 

Worthy of mention also is, WilcocVs Roman Conversations, or 
Descriptions of the Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 8. 

The following are abridgments : 

Abriss der griech. und romisch, Alterthumer, von Chr. Fried, 
ffaacke. Stendal, 1821. 

Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for Classical 
Schools; by Cits. K. Dillaway. Boston, 1831; 2d ed. 1S35. 

Thos. S. Carr, Manual of Rom. Antiquities. Lond. 1836. 12. 

3. We may also refer here to Montfancon's Antiquite Ex- 
pliquee, as illustrating by its plates and descriptions Roman as 
well as Greek Antiquities (cf. § 13). 

The following work contains many excellent delineations : 
Raccolta Tavole rappresent. i costumi religiosi, civili e militari 
degli antichi Egiziani, Etruschi, Grecie Romani, tratti dagli anti- 
chi monumenti,— disegrate, ed incise in rame, da Lorenzo Roc- 
cheggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing one hundred plates each. 

As pertaining especially to the subject of costume, we add, 
Bardon, Costume des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 vols. 4. 

A. Lens, Le Costume, ou Essai sur les habillements et les 
usages de plus, peupl. de l'Antiquite, prouve par les monuments. 
Liege, 1776. 4. 

Thos. Hope, The Costume of the Ancients. Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 
8. with numerous engravings in outline. New ed. Lond. 1841. 
2 vols. 8. 

Particularly, Maillot and Martin, Recherches sur les cos- 
tumes, les mceurs, &c. des anciens peuples, &c. — orne' de 296 
planches, au trait. Par. 1804-6. 3 vols. 4. " The first volume 
contains, in great detail, the costume, manners, &c. of the Ro- 
mans, from Romulus to the last emperors of Constantinople. 
The engravings are taken from medals and monuments of each 
epoch." 

4. It is proper also to refer here to works illustrating the 
remains of Roman Antiquity. 

See P. IV. §§ 130, 138, 187, 188, 191, 226, 243. 

F. A. David, Antiquites d'Herculanum. Par. 1790-1803. 
12 vols. 4. 

W. Stukeley, Itinerarium Curiosum, &c. Lond. 1760. 2 vols, 
in one, fol. with two hundred copper-plates; containing notices 
of Roman monuments in England. 

The Publications of the Instituto di Correspondenza Archeo- 
logica, a society for archaeological correspondence, founded in 
Rome by several distinguished scholars and antiquaries. The 
Bulletino dclV Instituto, commenced 1829, contains brief notices 
of new discoveries and new works, with other articles of special 
interest. By the title of Monumenti Inediti, the annual volume 
of plates is designated. The Annali delV Instituto, the chief 
publication, gives essays, reviews, and extended descriptions. 
Gerhard, Kestner, Raoul-Rochette, Bock, Panofka, Hirt, Muller, 
Millingen, &c. have been contributors, 

5. On various points it will be useful so consult Lardner, 
Pauly, Weber, Fosbrohc, &c. as cited § 13. 5. 

Also, F. Sabbathier, Institutions, Manners, and Customs of the 
Ancient Nations. Translated from the French by P. Stockdale. 
W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 

6 Other references to authors on particular topics are given 
under the sections treating of those topics. 

LothharVs Valerius, Buliver's Pompeii, and Ware's Letters 
from Palmyra, are fictions professing to exhibit the state of man- 
ners in the first centuries after Christ. 



P. III. RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 229 

§ 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek, under 
four distinct branches ; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of religion, civil 
government, war, and private life. 

I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 

§ 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well to notice the 
ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Originally, religio seems to 
have signified every sort of serious and earnest exertion, to which one was im- 
pelled by external or internal motives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to ex- 
press the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures; 
and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. 
In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and practices 
pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as 
the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will 
lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deport- 
ment, the word religio was also naturally employed as comprehending in its 
meaning this correctness of morals. 

§ 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must 
revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 189). There doubtless 
existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome various religious customs 
and the worship of various divinities ; and it is not easy to trace out their 
gradual rise and establishment. Ey the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, 
and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications; 
hence the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology 
and worship (cf. P. II. § 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions differ 
from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are the 
same. The Romans also adopted several religious usages not practiced by the 
Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries and auspices, which were borrowed from 
the Etrurians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence 
of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. 

§ 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately 
connected with their politics. It was often employed as a means of promoting 
secret designs of state, which the projectors knew how to render agreeable and 
desirable, by the help of superstition. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the 
people were determined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enter- 
prises derived their most effective stimulus from this source; and not seldom 
it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country 
was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and. 
festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear towards the 
gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the 
gods were considered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this 
belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart 
dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency 
of the gods therein. 

§ 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romulus made it a prominent 
object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and 
discordant materials of which the first inhabitants were composed. Still more 
carefully was this object pursued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the 
chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, 
as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretend- 
ed interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater 
respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental principles of Numa's 
system, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously. — 
As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religious 
notions of the more intelligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; 
but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common 
faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cumbrous by 
the deification of the emperors. 

On Numa, cf. P. V. § 447. — For a particular account of the gods worshiped by the Romans, we refer to the part (II.) of this work 
which treats of the subject of Mythology. The Roman division or classification of their gods is noticed in (P. II.) $ 9. 



230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 203. The great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large number of 
temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred [four 
hundred and twenty]. The name of temples, templet, however, properly belong- 
ed only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs; 
by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were 
distinguished from the sedes sacrse, although the names are often used inter- 
changeably. Their form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangu- 
lar oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- 
monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the building, and 
also after a remodeling or repairing of it. — The principal parts of a temple were 
commonly the sanctuary {cella sanctior, adytum), the interior, appropriated for 
the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various pur- 
poses. The temples, however, were often used, not only for religious solemni- 
ties, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They 
usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least 
ornamented with them on the front. 

Ou the structure of ancient temples, cf. P. IV. § 234, and references there given. On the temples at Rome, cf. P. I. §§ 58-60. — 

See Simon, Temples de l'ancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 199. 

§ 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks, 
with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with 
consecrated offerings of various kinds, called donaria. Every thing connected 
with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was devoted. — 
A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings 
were there erected, was fanurn. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a 
more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where 
stood the images of the gods, one or more; but it is often used in a more gene- 
ral sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and 
only guarded by a wall, were termed sacella. Among the groves (luci) conse- 
crated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, 
Egeria, Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. 

§ 205. Altars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then 
inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they were dedicated; usu- 
ally, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between 
altaria and arse,- the former were raised higher {alia ara), and were used for 
offering the sacrificial victim ; the latter were lower, and were used in offering 
the prayer and libation. The former were more usually consecrated to the 
celestial gods ; the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and 
were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 

1 u. There was also a third kind of altar, anclabris or enclabris, a sort of table, on 
which the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were laid by the 
Haruspices. The mensa sacra was something still different, a table on which incense 
was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as various arti- 
cles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some 
metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white 
color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of 
victims. The form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not un- 
frequently they were adorned with sculpture and image-work. 

Different forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXVII. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enclabris. 
Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's altar of burnt offering- (cf. 2 Chron. iv. 1); given by Pri- 
deaux, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins ; copied and described in Caimet, Diet. 
&c. vol. iii. p. 144, 357, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E. is an altar erected as a sepulchral monument, 
in honor of a Roman emperor; it is highly ornamented wilh sculptures, and bears an inscrip- 
tion ; the letters D M stand for Diis Manibus. The elevations at the corners in this and in fig. 
H, show what is designated by the phrase " horns of the altar." — In Plate XX. are other forms 
of the altar. In the Sup. Plate 30, are four others ; on the altar uf Jupiter is seen the bust of 
the god, and below it an eagle holding a thunderbolt in his claws ; beneath this, in the original 
monument, is the inscription, I. O. M. IVSSA OCTAVIA SVCCESSA P.; i. e. Jovi Optimo 
^Maximo, jussa Octavia Successa posuit. On the altar of Bacchus, a Bacchanal is dancing over a 
prostrate wine-cup, holding another cup in one hand and the thyrsus in the other. The a^ar 
cf JVrptune is one of the four discovered at Antium (Nettuno); on it is sculptured Neptune with 
the trident in his left hand and a dolphin in his right; above this is inscribed, in the original, 
ARA NEPTVNI. The tripod was often used as the form of an altar to Apollo; the very re- 
markable one given in this Plate corresponds to a representation on a silver coin of Consul M. 
.Em. Lppidus. — See Montfavcon (as cited P. II. $ 12), ii. 242. 132. Sup. ii. 56.— For various altars 
as sepulchral erections, see Montfaucon, vol. v. and Suppl. vol. v. — Roman altars have repeat- 
edly been found in England. Archosologia, as cited P. IV. $ 32. 5. vol. iii. p 118, 324. 



PLATE XXVII. 




#32 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribins, and garlands of herbs and 
flowers. Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among the Romans as well as 
Greeks (cf. § 66), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolvent debtors 
and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be 
employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be 
confined there until they perished. 

§ 206. A great variety of instruments and vessels, vasa sacra, were employed 
in the sacrifices offered to the gods. 

I v. The most important were the following : the ax (bipennis, securis, d, d), or 
club (malleus, c), with which the victim was first struck; knives for stabbing (cultri, 
e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails (secespitce) ; the 
censer (thuribulum, 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (acerra 
or arcula thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in dropping the wine upon the sacrifices (guttus) ; 
a flat vessel in which the priests and others offering -sacrifices tasted the wine (simpu- 
lum, b) ; broad dishes or bowls (patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims ; 
an oblong vase with one or two handles (capedo, capeduncula, capis, o, o) ; vessels to 
hold the entrails (ollce extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were brought to 
the altar (lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the fruit offered (ca?iistra) ; 
small tables with three legs (iripodes) ; an instrument, having a tuft of hair, or the 
like, for sprinkling the sacred water (aspergillum, f ) ; pans for the sacrificial fire (prcB- 
fericula) ; metallic candlesticks (candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 

?. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the above 
specification, refer to the figures thus marked in our Plate XXVII. The figures marked by the 
letters are drawn from Montfaucon, vol. ii. p. 150. Those marked by the numerals are from 

Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. IV. $ 226. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial apparatus ; 

fig. g shows the sacred fillet (vitta), which was sometimes hung from the neck; fig. 4 is a ladle 
(ligula); fig. 3, a pitcher (urceus, culullus) used for the libations; these figures are taken from 
sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a temple found at Pompeii ; fig. 
B exhibits a scene from the same altar; a magistrate in bis robe is offering sacrifice; he holds 
in his hand a patera; the victim is led forward by the popaor cultrarius, who is naked to his 
waist with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a vase or pitcher, and 
an older servant bearing a platter (discus); by his side is a musician blowing the flute, followed 
by lictors with their fasces; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with 
garlands. — Fig. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Montfaucon from an ancient coin ; the 
augur's wand (lituus) is seen in the hand of the principal person. The group of articles in- 
cluded in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to illustrate also Hebrew 
and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will notice among them the sho- 
vel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the modern teapot, a fire-pan, jars, bowls, 
dishes, &c. cf. Exod. xxv. 29.— Fig. a, is the sacred trumpet (tuba) sounded at hecatombs and 
other sacrifices. The straight trumpet was also used at sacrifices, as is seen in Plate XXIX, and 
likewise the flute or clarionet, as is seen in PlateXXIX, and Plate XLV.— In Plate XLV. is seen, 
hanging from the girdle of a priest (the one that holds the head of the victim) the case (vagina) 
for the knives ; the same article is given in the Sup. Plate 31. fig. 18. In this Plate also are 
various instruments of sacrifice ; 1, 2, the acerra and thurarium ," 3, enclabris; 4, thuribulum, as 
given by Montfaucon, differing from the form given in Plate XXVII., fig. 1 ; 5, capis ; 6, 7, 10, 
forms of the simpulum ; 8, patera or patella ; 9, the vessel given by Montfaucon as the prmferi- 
culum, which he describes not as a pan for holding the fire, but as a vessel for holding the wine 
of the libation ; 11 , 17, cultri ; 12, tuba ,• 13, malleus ; 14, Dolabra ; 15, securis ; 16, seva, or seces- 
pita ; 19, discus, a broad shallow platter ; 20, olla ; 21, lituus; 22, candelabra ; 23, aspergillum, 
aspersorium, or lustrica. 

§ 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into certain com- 
mon orders, or colleges. These were mostly established by the first kings ; 
Romulus established the Luperci, Curiones, Haruspices ; Numa, the Flamines, 
Vestales, Salii, JLugures, and Feciales. During the republic the Rex sacrorum 
and the Epulones were introduced ; and un$ler the emperors some others. — The 
Roman priests may be ranged in two general classes ; those common to all the 
gods (omnium deorum sacerdotes) ; and those appropriated to a particular deity 
(uni numini addicti). Of the former were the Pontifices, Augures, Quindecem- 
viri sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, 
Sodales Titienses, and Rex Sacrorum. Of the latter class were the Flamines, 
Salii, Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. 

§ 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by Numa, origi- 
nally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally more even to fifteen. 
The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maximus, who held the highest priestly 
office, dignity, and power. He was appointed at first by the kings, subse- 
quently by the college (Collegium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104 
B. C. by the people. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again 
taken from them. All the other priests and the vestals were subject to the 
Pontifex Maximus. 

1 u. He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the festivals and 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AUGURS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 233 

the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of the records of public transac- 
tions (annales). He was also judge in many questions of right. — His dress was a 
toga pratexla, and his head-ornament a sort of cap made of the skin of a victim and 

called galerus. Augustus assumed this office himself as emperor, which was done 

likewise by his successors down to Gratian, who abolished it. 

2. Those who held the office of Pontifex Maximus, are said to have resided in a 
public house called Regia (cf. § 213). — The hierarchy of the church of Rome is thought 
to have been established on the model of the Pontifex Maximus and the college of 
Pontifices. 

L. Bimard, Le Pontificat des Empr. Romains, in the Mem. Acad, htsa: xii. 355 ; xv. 38. Cf. ix. 115. Ou the Roman pon- 
tiffs, &c. cf. Moyle's Works, vol. i. — Beaufort, Republique Romaine. 

§ 209. The Augurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their name from 
consulting 1 the flight of birds, augurium, avigerium. They were introduced 
from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a regular order by Numa. Their 
number was originally three, then four, afterwards nine, and finally increased 
by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after 
B.C. 300, in part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Magister Collegii, 
and Augur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple 
{trabea), a crooked staff {lituus), and a conical cap (sometimes called apex). 
Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds (auspicium), 
from which they predicted future events. They also explained other omens and 
signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain 
animals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 

1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acuminibus, i. e. prognostics were drawn 
from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhesion of the 
lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The 
places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were to be erected, were con- 
secrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of Theodo- 
sius the Great. The public Augurs of the Roman people should be distinguished 
from the private Augurs of the emperors. 

2. The omens, signa, portenta, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or 
pretended to foretell the future, have been classed in five divisions. (1) From 
birds ; chiefly the flight of some (alites), such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards ; but 
also the chattering and singing of others (oscines), such as the owl {bubo), crow (corvus, 
comix,) or cock (gallus). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, light- 
ning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens of either of these two kinds the augur 
stood on some elevated point (arx, t em plum), which was frequently called auguratorium, 
with his head covered with the lce?ia, a gown peculiar to the office ; after sacrificing 
and offering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four 
quarters (called templa) with his lituus, and waited for the omen. A single omen was 
not considered significant ; it must be confirmed by another of the same sort. In 
whatever position the augur slood, omens on the left were by the Romans reckoned 
lucky, contrary to the notions of the Greeks (cf. § 75); the explanation given of this 
disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; 
but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky omens would be on his right, 
while the Roman augur usually faced the south, and therefore had the lucky omens 
on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes called un- 
lucky among the Romans, and the term sinister came to signify unpropitious , and 
dexter to mean propitious. (3) From chickens (pulli) kept in a coop for the purpose, 
by the pullarius. The omen was taken early in the morning from their actions when 
the augur threw crumbs of corn before them ; if they turned away from it, or ate re- 
luctantly, it was an unlucky omen; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking 
this augury was called Tripudium, perhaps from the bounding of the corn when 
thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observing whether they appear- 
ed in a strange place, or how they crossed the way, whether to the right or the left, 
and the like. (5) From various circumstances and events, which may be included 
under the term accidents ; among these were sneezing, falling, hearing sounds, see- 
ing images, spilling salt upon the table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. 
Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dirce. 

Kennctt, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv.— Cf. Morin, Les Augurs ; and Simon, Les Presages, in the Mem. de PAcad. des Inscr. i. 54 and 
129.— Mayo, Mythology, i. 255. 

§ 210. The Haruspices were the priests who inspected the entrails of animals 
offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occurrences ; they were called 
extispices. They appeared under Romulus and were established by him ; it is 
doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only, 
and not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the 
30 u2 



234 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Etrurians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin; the dis- 
covery of the art (Haruspicina) was ascribed by fable to Tages, a son of Jupi- 
ter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty. 
Their overseer was styled Magister Publicus or Summits Haruspex. From the 
different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three 
classes, extispices, fulguratores, and prudigiatores. For, besides observing the 
entrails of victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame, 
smoke, &c, they also were consulted in relation to lightning and places or 
buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prodigies and dreams. 

1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their motion, and 
the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing from the appear- 
ances, ihey called them exta muta. On the other hand, the term iitare was used to 
signify an auspicious sacrifice. 

2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also the other reli- 
gious orders had ; these seem to have been accounts of their observations, memorials of thun- 
der and lightning, and ominous occurrences. Their art was at one time considered so impor- 
tant that the senate decreed that a number of youth should be regularly instructed in it ; at a later 
period it fell into disrepute; the emperor Claudius attempted to revive it. Cf. Cicero, De Div. 
i. 41, 43. ii. 24, 29, 35. Tacitus, Ann. xi. 15. — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with 
sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil (Georg. iii. 486). 

§ 211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts (epulse) of 
the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla the number 
was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epulones, and by Caesar at last to ten. 
They had the care of what were called the Ledisternia, when couches were 
spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and 
placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most 
important of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They 
were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. 
Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often taken for this office; 
yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed 
its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prsetexta. The viri epulares 
must not be confounded with the epulones ,- the former were not the priests, but 
the guestc at the repasts spoken of. 

§ 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing long before the 
building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other Italian states. The order 
was introduced at Rome by Numa. It continued to the beginning of the impe^- 
rial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They 
may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties 
and agreements pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called 
P crier pair alus. It devolved upon him, or the Feciales under him, to give the 
enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the 
declaration by uttering a solemn form (clarigatio), and hurling a spear (hasta 
sanguined), into the enemy's limits. These priests were also the customary 
agents in effecting an armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and 
aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices there- 
with connected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and 
the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security 
of foreign ambassadors at Rome. 

§ 213. The Rex sacrorum, or Bex sacrificulus, held an office, which was insti- 
tuted first after the expulsion of the kings, and probably derived its name from 
the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings 
themselves or under their immediate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, 
the office and name both arose from a desire that the royal dignity might not 
be wholly forgotten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts oc- 
cupied the first place, although the duties were not numerous, and consisted 
chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was 
also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointly with the 
Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (populum calare), and make known 
the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing. 
At the Comiiia he offered the great public sacrifice, after which, however, he 
must withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Be- 



P. HI. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 235 

gina sacrorum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His 
residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Regia. The office con- 
tinued until the time of Theodosius the Great. 

See Amlrosch, Studien und Andeutungen, p. 41.— Cf. L. Sc/imitz, in Smith's Diet, of Antiq. p. 823. 

§ 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such priests as 
were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them 
was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the 
order, there were but two besides this, viz.: the Flamen Martialis and the Fla- 
men Quirinalis. Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They 
were divided into majores, who must be Patricians, and minores, who were 
taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a purple 
border (/a???a), and a cap of conical form {apex) adorned with a twig of olive. 
The Flamen "Dialis had a lictor, and also a sella curulis and the toga praetexta; 
his wife was called Flaminica, and aided him in some parts of the worship on 
the festivals of Jupiter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and en- 
joyed several other privileges, which were peculiar to. the Flamines. Many 
duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen 
Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose ser- 
vice they were devoted, as Flamen Neptunalis, Floralis, Pomonalis ; so of those 
belonging to a deified Caesar, as Flamen rfugustalis, Flavialis, &c. 

§ 215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the common 
opinion had their name from dancing (satire), because on certain festival days 
they passed about the city dancing, and singing songs in honor of Mars. They 
were first instituted by Numa. The immediate occasion of their institution, ac- 
cording to the tradition, was the famous shield, Ancile, said to have been sent 
from heaven; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order to 
hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were carried 
by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit around the city. 

1 7i. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Frossul, whose leaping was 
expressed by the verb amtruare, and the leaping of the others after him by redamtruare. 
They had their appropriate residence (curia Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides 
the music which accompanied their dancing, they struck their shields together, and 
in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated the praises of the 
god of war (cf. P. IV. § 114. 4.) and of Veturius Mamarius, the artist who made the 
eleven shields. 

2 u. The order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the acces- 
sion of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the emperors, especially M. Au- 
relius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only for a certain period. 
— The Salii Collini or Quirinales were distinct from this body, and established by 
Tullius Hostilius. 

See Liv. i. 20.— Ov. Fast. iii. 259. On the Salii, and other classes of priests, ef. Gditling, Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfass.— 

See also especially Harlung, Die Religion der Romer. — T. Gutberlethi de Saliis Martis sacerdotibus apud Romanos liber singularis. 
Franequene, 1704. 8.— Cf. Seidel, De Saltat. sacr. vet. Rom. Berl. 1826.—./?. Apel's Metrik, Th. 2. p. 647. 

§ 216. The Luperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established 
by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designation, which Pan re- 
ceived from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Lupercus (ab arcendo lupos). 
His temple was from the same circumstance called Lupercal, and his most cele- 
brated festival at Rome, Lupercalia. This festival began about the middle of 
February, and was regarded as a season of expiation for the wholecity. The 
Luperci, on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle 
of goat's skin about the waist; they carried in their hands thongs of the same 
material, with which they struck those whom they met ; the word, to express 
the action was catomidiare. A peculiar efficacy was ascribed to these blows, 
particularly in rendering married women prolific. 

1 a. There were three distinct companies (sodalitales) of these priests ; the Fahiani, 
Quhitiliani, and Julii. The last were of later origin and took their name from Julius 
Caesar; the others were, named after individuals, who had been their chief or head 
priests. 

2 u. The Polilii and Pinarii were not companies or sodalities of Luperci, but priests 
of Hercules ; they were not held in important estimation, although their pretended 
origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The tradition was, that Hercules, 



236 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

during his residence in Italy with Evander, instructed in the rites of his worship the 
tribes or families bearing this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests. 

§ 217. The Galli were priests of Cybele the great mother of the gods, so 
called from the river Gallus in Phrygia, whose water was regarded as possess- 
ing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who drank it. The circumstance 
of their being castrated is referred to the fable respecting Atys. At the festival 
of their goddess, celebrated in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. II. § 21), these 
priests imitated the phrensy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and 
self-scourging and cutting. Their chief priest was termed Archigallus. The 
order was not highly respected. 

§ 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vestales, were an order of Priestesses, of very 
early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The constant preservation of the 
holy fire and the guarding of the Palladium (P. II. § 43, § 67) were the princi- 
pal duties of the Vestals. They were first instituted by Numa, four in number; 
two were added by Tarquinius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever 
after remained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vestalis or Virgo 
Maxima. They were selected (capere) between the age of six and ten, particu- 
lar regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection. 
They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years unmarried. The first 
ten years were employed in learning the rites, the second ten in performing 
them, and the rest in instructing others. Negligence in any of their duties was 
severely punished. If any one violated her vow of chastity, she was buried 
alive in a place called Campus sceleralus, near the Porta Collina. Besides the 
two principal duties of these priestesses, they were accustomed to offer certain 
sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some 
preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great 
respect, and many privileges ; e. g. entire freedom from parental control ; au- 
thority to deliver from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them; cer- 
tain revenues of lands devoted to them; the attendance of a lictor, whenever 
they went out; a public maintenance, and release from the obligation to take 
an oath. Their office was abolished under Theodosius, on account of its ex- 
pense. 

For representations of Vestals, see Plate XXVIII. and explanations given F. II. § 67.— Cf. Nadal, Dupuy, &c. as there cited. 

§ 219 a. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of priests 
before named (cf. § 207). The Quindecemviri sacris faciundis had the care of the 
Sibylline books (cf. § 226). The Fratres Arvales served especially at the festi- 
val called Ambarvalia (cf. P. II. § 63), when the fields were dedicated and 
blessed, these priests passing over them in procession (cf. P. IV. § 114), with 
a crowd of attendants. The Sodales Tilii or Tatii had their name from the 
Sabine king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven of them. There were also 
Sodales Augustales, or priests in honor of Augustus. The Curiones were thirty 
priests, who performed the sacred rites common to the several Curia?. 

1. Each of the Curies had a president or priest called Curio ; these thirty priests 
formed a college under a chief' president termed Curio maximus. Cf. § 251 ; also 
P. I. §61. 

2 7t. The priests of all the various classes had their assistants and servants {ministri). 
Among these were the waiting boys and maids, camilli and Camilla ; the assistants of 
the priests who offered sacrifices, fiaminii and fi.am.incB ; the keepers of the temples, 
ceditui or ceditumni ; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew them, popce, 
viclimarii, cultrarii. The tibicines, tubicines, fidicines, &c, who accompanied the 
sacrificial rites with music,' formed likewise another fraternity. 

3. The mystagogi v/ere those who initiated others into mysteries ; the name is also given to 

those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. By some late writers the priests 

were divided into three classes $ antistites, chief priests ; sacerdotes, ordinary priests; and mi- 
nistri, meanest priests. 

§ 219 b. Respecting the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. When 
Romulus first divided the Roman territory, he set apart what was sufficient for the 
performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. Numa is said to have 
provided a fund for defraying the expenses of religion, and to have appointed a stipend 
(stipendium) for the Vestals ; the Augurs also and the Curiones are said to have re- 
ceived an annual stipend ; but there is no evidence that the priests received any regu- 
lar salary, except as it may seem probable from the instances specified. Yet there 



h ;cxrc.cc 




P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS. SACRIFICES. 237 

can be no doubt that, in some way or other, sufficient provision was made for their 
support. — Two priests, the Pontifex Maximus and the Flamen Dialis, were by virtue 
of their office members of the senate. All the priests held their offices without respon- 
sibility to the civil magistrate ; and with few exceptions were allowed to hold other 
offices both civil and military. 

Cf. C'i'c. De Leg. ii. 9.— Liu. xxxviii. 47; xxxix. 45.— Dion ys. Hal. iv. 8.— Also, Liv. i. 20.— Dionys. ii. 6, T.—Tac. Ann. iv. 16 
—See H. Sebelius, De Sacerdotiis Rom. in Sallaigre, vol. iii. — Burigny, Les honneurs accordes aux pretres, &c. in the Mem. Acad. 
Insa: xxxi. 108. * 

Representations of priests, from ancient monuments, may be seen in Plates XIX., XX., 
XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., XLV., XLVI. ; also in the Sup. Plates 28, 29, 32.— In Plate XXVIII., 
the two figures marked Priests are taken from a bas-relief found at Autun (Jlugustodunum, cf. 
P. I. $ 17) ; they represent two Druidw, or priests of the religion of the ancient Gauls and Bri- 
tons ; both have ample robes, and long beards; one, who is perhaps the rfrch-Druid, wears a 
crown of oak leaves and holds a scepter, the other holds a crescent or half-moon. 

Respecting the Druids, see Fosbroke, Encyclop. of Antiq. p. 768.— G. Biggins, The Celtic Druids. Lond. 1S27. 4.— The work 
enti'.led "Identity of the Religions called Druidical and Hebrew." — Montfaucon, vol. ii. p. 434. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. p. 209. 
—Edinb Encyclop. 

§ 220. Of the vast multitude cf religious customs among the Romans, we 
will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers to the gods. They 
praj T ed with the head covered or vailed (capitevelato). They bowed themselves 
down to the ground, in this posture moved around completely from right to left, 
placed their right hand on the mouth (adoratio), and directed their face towards 
the east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a higher 
degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or prostrated the 
whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold of the altar 
and to make offerings of meal and wine with their prayers. The prayer was 
not always offered with an audible voice. Public prayers (precationes) were 
made by a priest or a magistrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was 
that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings (supplicationes) 
were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and 
praising the gods; in which view the people made a solemn procession to the 
temples. Public occasions of this sort were called supplicationes ad pulvinaria 
deorum ,• these pulvinaria were a sort of couches or stools with cushions or 
pillows (pulvini), on which were placed the statues of the gods. They were 
also termed supplicia, and were appointed in honor of particular deities, or of 
all the gods united. The prayers offered on these occasions were called obse- 
crationes, which term usually has reference to the averting of danger. 

Burigny, Les prieres des Paiennes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 21,—Morin, Baisemains, &c. (adoratio), in the same 
Mem. vol. iii. p. 69. 

There is no evidence that public religious instruction formed any part of the duty of priests, or was ever connected with public 
worship, which consisted wholly in performing such rites as are above specified, and in offerings and sacrifices. Nothing like preach- 
ing or sacred oratory was known. 

§ 221. The sacrifices of the Romans (sacrificia) were very various. They 
were offered either at stated times (staia, solennia), or on particular occasions 
(ex accidente nata). Animal sacrifices were termed hostise or victimse ,• the original 
difference between these words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered 
on going out against a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as 
little regarded by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the former 
a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice. 

1 u. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously selected. 
They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the person offering them, with gar- 
lands of flowers; the horns of bullocks and rams were decked with gilt, and white 
fillets were hung over their necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered 
as a favorable omen; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as unfavorable ; the 
act of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. The priests then commanded 
all the profane to depart, and another priest ordered silence {Unguis favete). Then 
followed the prayer to the gods, and after it the offering of the victim. The knife and 
the altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a mixture of salt 
and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola salsa). The head of the victim was 
sprinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolate, 
although it is often synonymous with mactare. 

2u. The cult rarhts, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked, Agone? 
and the consul, preetor or priest having answered, Hocage, then struck the animal in 
the forehead with his ax or mallet; another, next cut or stabbed him in the throat ; 
and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined 
by the haruspex, and if they were found favorable, were, after being cleansed, laid on 



238 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was burned (holocaustum) ; but 
usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or to the priests. 
Upon the burning flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out ; the latter 
constituted the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, 
accipe libens. In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After all 
came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice partook in 
common, and which was usually accompanied with music and dancing, and often fol- 
lowed with games. 

3. Music also usually accompanied the offering of the sacrifice, as is shown by the monuments 
represented in our Plates. Compare Plate XXVII. fig. B, where are seen two long straight 
trumpets; Plate XXIX. where, besides the trumpets, the double flute is played by a boy, who is 
adorned with a wreath on his head, as are also most of the officiating priests; Plate XLV., 
where the flute and the tympanum are introduced (cf P. II. # 91. 2), 

4. There were sacrifices without blood ; made by libations usually of wine, but also 
of other fluids; by burning incense or fragrant wood, such as cedar, fig, and myrtle ; 
and by offering fruit as a tribute or tithe from the harvest (primiiice) and also sometimes 
cakes (liba) made of flour and honey or of wax. 

5. Illustrations of the pouring out of libations are given in Plate XXVII. fig. C, and in Plate 
XX. ; in the latter is also seen the offering of fruit or cakes, together with a libation ; it is from 
a sculpture in ivory, representing a sacrifice without blood to Mercury ; a female is taking some- 
thing from a cylindrical vase, while a servant (camilla) holds a discus of fruit or cakes and a 
vessel containing the libation. — In the same plate is the representation of a bloodless sacrifice 
to Diana, from a bas-relief on the Arch of Constantine (cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2). The image of the 
goddess, with a crescent on her head and a spear in her right hand, standing on a pedestal, is 
seen between two trees; on one of which is fixed the head of a wild boar (aper) ; the altar is in 
front of the image ; three milites hastati are in attendance, while the emperor Trajan, holding in 

one hand a volume, with the other hand empties a patera upon the flame. In Plate XLVI.is 

a representation of the sacrifice of a bull to Jupiter Capitolinus by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
drawn from a remarkable anaglyph at Rome. Cf. P. IV. $ 188. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 32 is a 
beautiful representation of the animal sacrifice performed by priests, and of the sacrifice with- 
out blood conducted by priestesses, one of whom is pouring a libation from a vessel which is 
perhaps the capedo (cf. $ 206). 

§ 222. It was very common among the Romans to make vows (vota), which 
generally consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgments or 
returns, provided the gods should grant the requests of those making the vows. 
A person doing this was said vota facere, concipere, suscipere, nuncupare, and 
was called voti reus; to fulfil the promise was vota solvere, reddere ; he who 
gained his wish was said to be voti damnalus, voti compos. Sometimes the 
thing desired was itself termed votum. Often public vows were made for the 
benefit of the whole people ; these were considered as the most binding. The 
vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which was preserved in the temple 
of the god to whom it was made. 

1 u. Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to hang up in 
the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures representing the circumstances of their 
danger and deliverance (tabulce votivce). Similar pictures were sometimes carried about 
by them in order to obtain charitable relief. 

2 u. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made to Juno 
Lucina or Genius, on a birth-day {vota natalitia) ; those made when boys, on passing 
from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo {vota capillitia) ; the vows 
of the sick in case of recovery; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape ; of those 
on journeys by land. It also became a custom for subjects to make vows for the wel- 
fare of their emperors, which were renewed after the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of 
their reign, and therefore called quinquennia, decennalia or vicennalia. 

H. Dodwell, de diebus veterum natalitiis, in his Prmlect. Acad. Ox. 1692. 8. p. 153. 

§ 223. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (dicatio), was 
one of the religious solemnities of the Romans. This was originally performed 
by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and often also by two magistrates ap- 
pointed for the purpose and called duumviri dedicandis templis. The senate 
must first decree the service; the Pontifex Maximus must be present at the so- 
lemnity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompanied with 
acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then followed. 

On the ceremonies at the dedication of a temple, see Tacitus, Hist. iv. 53.— Cf. HooWs Rom. Hist. vol. x. p. 282, as cited P. V. 
§299.7. 

1 u. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration (co?isecratio) ; only, the latter 
expression was applied to a great variety of particular objects, e. g. statues, sacred 
utensils, fields, animals, &c. Resecration, on the other hand, was a private trans- 
action, in which the people or individuals were freed from their vows; this was also 
called religione solvere. 

2. The term inauguratio was sometimes used as synonymous with dedicatio and 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. 239 

consecratio; but it was in general the ceremony by which the Augurs sought the plea- 
sure or sanction of the gods in respect to any thing decreed or contemplated by men ; 
it was a ceremony therefore used not only in dedication, but in introducing a priest or a 
magistrate into office, and in entering upon any important engagement. Cf. $ 209. 

3 u. Execration was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods was a 
solemn rite by which (certo carmine) ihey called upon the gods of a besieged city {evocare) 
to take the side of the Romans. It was attended with sacrifices and consultation of the 
entrails. 

§ 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended gods, and 
the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piaculum. Much more frequent 
and various were the lustrations or purifications {lustrationes), both public and 
private. 

1 u. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals ; the private 
were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was customary before the march 
of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lustration, not for reviewing the forces, 
but to purify them by sacrifices. 

2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five years, a 
purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were 
carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The sacrifice was called suovetaurilia, 
and he who performed it was said condere lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have 
been applied to it, because at that time all the taxes were paid by the farmers-general 
to the censors (from laere to pay) ; the term is also used to signify a space of five years, 
because the ceremony was performed always at the end of that period. The verb 
histrare expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the victims v/ere carried 
round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to survey. The 
lustrum was always made in the Campus Martins. 

In Plate XXIX. is a fine representation of the Suovetaurilia, or sacrifice to Mars, drawn from 
ancient marbles sculptured in bas-relief: the priest, probably Trajan the emperor, with a veil 
upon his head, approaches a double altar crowned with laurel; a servant (eamilius) stands by, 
holding the acerra; another plays upon the double tibia; two soldiers blow the tuba ; behind 
the emperor is a priest or servant bearing the vessel considered by Montfaucon as the prmferi- 
culum ; others are leading forward the three victims ; in attendance are several soldiers and 
standard-bearers ; a rich fillet lies upon the back of the bull ; all the priests are crowned with 
laurel. Cf. Montfaucon, ii. 189, and Sup. ii. 73. 

3. The expiation made on the appearance of some prodigy, was often very solemn and impos- 
ing. "The senate, after having ordered the Sibylline books to be consulted by those who had 
the keeping of them, to see what was to be done on those occasions, ordinarily appointed dayg 
of fasting ; as also festivals, especially the Lectisternia ; public prayers; and sacrifices. Then 
you might have seen the whole city of Rome, and in imitation of her the other cities of the em- 
pire, in mourning and consternation; the temples adorned; the Lectisternia prepared in the 
public places; expiatory sacrifices repeated over and over again. The senators and patricians, 
their wives and their children, with garlands on their heads, every tribe, every order, preceded 
by the High Priest and the Duumviri, marched gravely through the streets ; and this procession 
was accompanied by the youth singing hymns, or repeating prayers, while the Priests were 
offering sacrifices in the temples and invoking the gods to avert the calamities with which they 
imagined themselves to be threatened." 

§ 225. The oaths (jusjurandum, juramentum) of the Romans, which were 
regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into public and private. The 
first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (cf. § 243. 1) often also 
by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census, 
and every single soldier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such 
as pertained to marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the 
gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses ; not unfrequently sacrifices were at 
the same time offered. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said 
conceptis verbis jurare. 

1. Witnesses in civil proceedings sometimes confirmed their testimony by an oath ; and in all 
public trials (cf. $ 2fil) were required to do it. Perjury was punished, yet, so far as appears, not 
more severely than false testimony (falsum) without oath. — Swearing seems to have been in- 
dulged freely in common life and ordinary conversation ; such expressions as the following 
were frequent; Hercle, or Mehercle; Pol, JEdepol, Perpol; per Jo vein. ; per superos ; medius 
fidius ; dii me verdant, or interftceant, &c. 

Erissonius, De Formul. &c— L. C. Valckcnaer, De llitibus in Jurando a veteribus, in J. OdricWs Collect. Opusculorum. Brem. 
176S. 4. 

2 u. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's self (devovere) to 
capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his country or the life of a person particu- 
larly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured 
city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished. 

§ 22G. The Romans had no oracles themselves; but in cases of importance, 
they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman supersti- 
tion, however, found nearer sources of information respecting the will and decla 



240 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

rations of the gods. Besides the use of their augurium and extispiscium, they 
had recourse to the Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of 
Curnae. 

1 u. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus (see P. V. 
$ 16). They were kept with great care in a stone vanlt under ground in the Capitol, 
in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis (cf. § 219). In important emergencies, 
in general disasters, when omens were inauspicious, or circumstances were perplexing-, 
they consulted the Sibylline predictions, and endeavored thence to ascertain how the 
offended deities could be appeased. 

2 u. The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books; 
there were attempts to restore some parts* of them from fragments and quotations. The 
pieces now extant under this name, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of 
later origin, 

§ 227. The use of lots (so7-tes), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or 
undertaking-, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or 
blocks {tali) of wood or metal, on which certain words or marks were inscribed, 
which were kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous 
were those in the temple of this goddess at Prasneste, which in early times were 
very frequently employed. 

1 u. Those at Antium were also renowned ; those at Caere and Falerium disappeared, 
as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of this sort were provided and kept 
for domestic use. Those who foretold the future by means of lots were called Sortilegi. 

Cf. Cic. de Divinat. ii. 41.— Liv. xxi. 62. xxii. l.—Du Resnel, Recherches Histor. sur les Sorts appelees par les Payens, Sortes 
Virgilianas, &c. in Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 

2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (cf. § 209), other artifices were 
employed among the Romans by those who pretended to foretell the future. Some 
professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Astrologi,Malhematici, or 
Genelhliaci, and sometimes Chaldcei. or Babylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chal- 
daea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjeclores; others to have an internal 
afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaticinatores. Insane persons were supposed to fore- 
know the future ; in which class were the Ceriti, those rendered insane by Ceres; the 
Lymphaii, rendered so by the water-nymphs; Lunatici, by the moon; Fanatici, by 
the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane (fanum). In short many 
of the Grecian arts of divination (cf. § 75) were practiced among the Romans. 

3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Ro- 
mans ; perhaps, however, chiefly by Greeks and other foreigners. Some passages in 
Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were openly avowed at Rome. Pliny 
speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world. — The 
Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinating 
others (fascinatio), by darting an evil look upon them ; which the Greeks termed 
T&acKavia (cf. § 75. 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was 
sometimes worn on the neck, called fascinum (cf. P. II. § 88. 2). 

See Archzologia (as cited P IV. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Bas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by the evil 
eye. — V. Alsarius, De Invidia et Fascino Veterum, in Grxvius, vol. xii.— Class. Journ. vol. xxxvi. p. 1S5, on the magic of the 
Greeks and Romans. — Le Blond, sur Magie, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, i. 81. — Bonamy and Blan- 
chard, La Magie, &c in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 23. xii. 49. Cf. Hor. Epod. 5. and 17.— Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. 1.— Salverte, Des 
Sciences Occultes, ou Essaie sur la Magie. Par. 1S29. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and 
therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. Without noticing the various 
changes in this, we may remark that Romulus, Numa, and Julius Cassar were 
the authors of the principal methods of dividing and computing the year. The 
month was divided into three parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides, and in 
computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these 
three fixed points. 

1 u. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into 
twelve hours (horce) which of course were of different length at the different seasons of 
the year ; hence the phrase hora hibemia, equivalent to hora brevissima. The night 
was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. I. § 187), and also into four watches (vigilice). 
The use of sun-dials (solaria), and of water-glasses (clepsydra), seems to have been in- 
troduced at a comparatively late period. 

2. The dial is said to have been invented at Lacedaemon in the time of Cyrus the Great. The 
first one at Rome was set np B. C. about 260. — The clepsydra (KXeipydpa) was invented at Alex- 
andria, and carried thence to Athens and afterwards, B. C. about 160, introduced at Rome. " It 
was formed by a vessel of water, having a minute perforation in the bottom, through which the 
water issued (stealing out, K\ciptc vowp) drop by drop, and fell into another vessel, in which a 
light body floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water increased 



■KKCK 




P. HI. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 241 

in the receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly increasing height furnished 
an approximation to a correct indication of time." (Bigelow's Technology, p. 365.) — It was so 
constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accommodated to the varying 
length of the Roman hours. A servant was employed, whose business it was from time to time 
to examine the water-clock, and report the hour to his master. 

See the account of the divisions of time among the Romans, the day, month, and year, given under Chronology ; cf. P. I. §§ 187, 
188, 191-193.— To the references there given we add Dissen, De Partibus Noctis et Diei, &c. in his Kleirte Schriften. 

§ 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for the service 
of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets, and games; these were 
called dies festi. The days called dies fasti were those on which no assembly 
of the people or senate was held, but the praetor administered justice; days, on 
which he could not do this, were termed nefasti. Days, of which only a part 
of each could be appropriated to business, were called intercisi ,• those wholly 
resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered inauspicious were 
called dies religiosi ,• among these they reckoned especially the first days after 
the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which they named postridiani. The festival 
days were termed also feriae, dies feriaii, from the cessation of common 
business. 

I. The Roman festivals were either public, observed by the whole nation (ferice publico;), or 
private, observed by families and individuals (feriaz privates). Private festivals were held on 
days determined by the parties interested; being designed to commemorate births, marriages, 
deaths, or other important events in domestic history. The public included the ferice stativm, 
those of regular occurrence on certain fixed days; the ferice conceptivce, those held on days annu- 
ally appointed by civil magistrates or by the priesthood (jus pontificium); and the ferice impera- 
tive, those held on special emergencies by command of the consul, the prstors, or a dictator. 
As above mentioned all common business was suspended on the public ferice, the sancity of 
which was violated if the rex sacrorum, or any or the flamines, saw any person at work. The 
great number of the ferire and the length of their continuance sometimes interfered with the 
proper discharge of the public affairs of the state. Marcus Aurelius ordained that two hundred 
and thirty Bays of the year should be open for business, and the remaining days might be ferice. 
The festivals commonly had particular names, but some were designated by a distinctive epi- 
thet applied to the common name; as, e. g. Ferice Latince, commemorating the alliance between 
the. Romans and Latins; Ferice Semen.tivce, in seed-time, to pray for a good crop. — The Nundinte 
were sometimes reckoned among the Ferice; they were regular days on which the people from 
the country assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, market days ; called Nundinal, 
because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). — It, was the business of the Pontifices 
to prepare annually a register called Kalendarium, or Fasti Kalendares, or Fasti Sacri, in which 
the days were marked in each month and distinguished according as they belonged to the differ- 
ent classes above named ; and the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place 
through the year. The Fasti Kalendares are to be distinguished from the Fasti Annates; the latter 
were registers of the magistrates; of which the most important were those termed Fasti Consular es. 

Hartung, Die Religion der Romer.— R. Hospinian, De Festis Diebus Judaeorum, Grascorum, Romanorum, et Turcarum. Tigur. 
1593. fol. — Couture, Les Fastes, in the Mem. dead. Riser, i. 60. — De laNauze, Calendrier Romain, in the same Mem. Sic. vol. xxvi. 
p. 219.— Cf. Port Royal Lat. Grammar. — Several Fragments of Calendars are given in Grsevius, vol. viii. — A Calendar from Pauly's 
Real-Eneyclopadie is given in Smith's Diet, of Antiq — Respecting the Calendarium Prxnestinum, see P. IV. § 133. 6.— Respect- 
ing the Fasti Annales or Historici, see P. V. § 508. 

§ 230 1. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some of the 
principal, in order of the months. 



January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on 
the first day of the year, on which, in later 
times, the Consuls entered upon their office. 
The presents customary on this day were called 
strevce ; they were sent from clients to their 
patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and 
from friends to one another. 9th. The Jigo- 



ralia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn 
expiation or purification of the city, called fe- 
bruatio, whence the name of the month itself. 
It continued from the 18th to the end of the 
month, during which time prespnts were car- 
ried to the graves of deceased friends and rela- 
tives, and the living held feasts of love and re- 



nalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and 15th. | conciliation. 21st. Terminalia, to Terminus, 

The Carmentalia, to the goddess Carmenta, t the god of boundaries. 

an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. March. On the first day, with which in 
— ^25th. The Sementince, or festival of seed, I early times the year began, a festival to Mars, 
accompanied with the Jlinbarvalia, which dif- ! on which the procession or war-dance of the 
fered from the festival of the same name in i Salii was made (cf. $ 215); called also the fes- 

May ; on which they passed over the fields with j tival of the shields; it lasted three days. 

the animals to be slain in sacrifice. 30th. ; 6th. Vestalia, different from that held in June. 

The festival of Peace (Pax), first established by] 17th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different 

Augustus. 31st. The festival in honor of the j from the Bacchanalia. 19th. Quivquatria, to 

Penates, or household gods. ! Minerva, named from its duration of five days ; 

February. 1st. The Lucaria, in memory of i the last day called Tubilustriuia, because the 

the asylum formed by Romulus, or of the re- ' trumpets used in sacred rites were then puri- 

fupe (lucus) of the Romans after the sack of: fled. 23d. Hilaria, to Cybele, whose sacred 

their city by Brennus. — This day was also dedi- ! image was during it sprinkled and purified; 

rated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia, in ! called also Lavatio JWatris Deum. 

honor of Faunus and the Sylvan ijods, repeated ; April. On the 1st day, Veneralia, the festival 

5th December. 15th. Lupercalut, to Lvcaean ' of Venus, to whom the whole month was dedi- 

Pan (cf. £ 216). 17th. Quirinalia, to Romu- cated. (Cf. Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iii. 

lus, deified by the name Quirinus. ISth. Fe- p. 21). 5th. Megalesia, to Cybele, whose 

31 X 



242 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



priests, the Galli (cf. $ 217), on this made their 

procession. 12th. Cerealia, to Ceres, attended 

with games. 15. Fordicidia, to the goddess 

Tell us, for the purpose of averting a dearth or 
scarcity, on occasion of which Numa instituted 
the festival ; each Curia furnished a pregnant 
cow (forda) to be sacrificed to Tellus. — -21st. 
Palilia, a rural, country festival to Pales, god- 
dess of cattle- — 22d. Vinalia, repeated in Au- 
gust, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the 

vine in Italy. 23. Robigalia, to the god Ito- 

bicus, that he might protect the grain from 
blighting (a rubigine) 28th. Fluralia, to Flo- 
ra or Chloris, attended with games (cf. $ 236). 
30th. The festival of the Palatine Vesta, in- 
stituted by Augustus. 

May. On the first day, the Festival to the 
Lores Prcestites, and the ceremonies by night to 
Bona Dea, performed by the vestals and wo- 
men alone. 2d. Compitalia, to the Lares in 

the public ways. 9th. Lemuria, to the Lemu- 

res, or wandering spirits of deceased ancestors 
and relatives on the father's side (cf. P. II. $$ 
110, 111). 15th. Festum Mercatorium, to Mer- 
cury, for merchants (cf. P. II. $ 56). 23d. 

Vulcanalia, to Vulcan, called also Tubilustria 
from the purifying of the sacred trumpets. 

June. On the first day were several festi- 
vals, to Dea Carna, Juno Moneta, Mars Extra- 

muraneus, and Tempestas. 3d. The festival 

toBellona. 4th. To Hercules. 9th. Vesta- 

lia, to Vesta, in memory of the gift of bread to 
men. Food was sent to the Vestals to be of- 
fered to the gods ; and the asses, which turned 
the mills, were decked with garlands and led 

in procession. 10th. Matralia, to Matuta, 

celebrated by Roman matrons; also a festival, 
on the same "day, to Fortuna Virilis, by women ; 

and to Concordia. 13th. Quinquatria (parva), 

designed for the improvement and pleasure of 
those, who had the care of the music in the 

worship of the gods. 16th. Purifying of the 

temple of Vesta. 19th. To Sv.rrim.anus, i, e. 

probably to Pluto. 24th. Fortuna Fortis, for 

people of the lower classes. 30th. To Her- 
cules and the Muses. 



games in honor of Mars. 13th. To Diana. 

17th. Portv7imalia, to Portumnus, the god 

of harbors. 18th. Consualia, to Consus, the 

god of counsel or rather to Equestrian Neptune. 
The seizure of the Sabine women was com- 
memorated the same day. 21st. Vinalia (the 

second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter 

and Venus. 23d. Vulcanalia, to Vulcan as 

the god of fire, for security against conflagra- 
tions. 25th. Opeconsiva, to Rhea, or Ops, or 

fruit-bearing Earth. 

September. On the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- 

mactes. 4th. Ludi Magni, or Romani, in the 

Circus, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva; they 

lasted from the 4th day to the 12th. 13th. The 

ceremony of fixing a nail (clavus figendus) in 
the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appointed for 

the purpose, to avert contagious pestilence. 

25th. To Venus Oenetrix. 30th. Meditrimiha , 

for tasting new wine before the vintage; that 
this festival was sacred to a goddess of health, 
named Meditrina, is as doubtful as the existence 
of the goddess herself. 

October. 12th. Jiugustalia, properly games 
in honor of Augustus, instituted after the close 
of his campaigns, particularly the Armenian, 

B. C. 19 or 20. 13th. Fontinalia, in which the 

public fountains were crowned with garlands. 
— -15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race on the 
Campus Martius, at the end of which a horse 

was offered in sacrifice. 19th. The Armilus- 

trium, or review-muster, celebrated only by 
soldiers, and in full armor. 

November. 13th. A feast dedicated to Jupi- 
ter, Epulum Jovis. 15th. Ludi Plebeii, in the 

theatre, or the circus ; they were also frequent- 
ly held at other times not defined. 

December. 5th. Faunalia, kept by the peo- 
ple of the country, as the same in February 

was by the inhabitants of the city. 17th. 

Saturnalia, one of the most famous festivals of 
Rome, originally limited to a single day, after- 
wards extended over three, four, and more. It 
was a festival of leisure and general joy, in 
memory of the golden period in Italy under the 
government of Saturn. During it slaves were 



July. On the first day the occupants of placed on a footing of equality with their mas- 
hired houses changed their residence. 5th. \ ters. Many of the peculiar customs and sports 

Ludi Apollinares, with sacrifices. 6th. To j were similar to those of the Carnival, or Christ- 
Female Fortune, in memory of Coriolanus with- j mas Festival, of modern Rome. See Coleman's 
drawing his army from the city (Liv. ii. 40).jChr. Antiq. p. 435. — The work entitled Rome in 

7th. To Juno Caprotina, for young women, the Nineteenth Century, vol. iii. p. 240. 19th. 

15. To Castor and Pollux. 23d. Neptu- I Opalia, to the goddess of Ops. The Compi- 

nalia. 25th. Furinalia, to the goddess Furina. talia, to the Lares of the crossways, were often 

August. On the 1st day a festival to the held shortly after the Saturnalia, as well as in 
goddess of Hope; and gladiatorial sports and i other months. 

§ 231. The public games {ludi) among- the Romans, as well as among the 
Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival 
occasions in honor of the gods. These games were usually at the expense of 
the state, sometimes at the expense of individuals, particularly the emperors. 
They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their 
celebration. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a 
time fixed or variable; many also arose from particular occasions; hence the 
variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi stati, imperativi, instaurativi. 
votivi, quinquennales, decennales, seculares, lustrales, &c. Names were given 
also in reference to their character, and the place where they were celebrated ; 
e. g., ludi circenses, capitolini, scenici, piscatorii, triumphales, ficnebres. Only 
the most famous of these games can here be noticed. 

§ 232. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi Circcnses, or by way of emi- 
nence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus Ma xi.mtis, which 
was not merely a large free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edi- 
fice ; it was a kind of theatre, commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged 
and adorned by Julius Caesar as dictator. 

] u. Its breadth was more than a stadium, and its length was three and a half stadia 
(2187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) for spectators., so as to accommodate at 
least 150,000 persons. In the middle, extending lengthwise, was a wall, called spina 



P. HI. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 243 

circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in length. At each end of the wall were 
three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals (melcs), around which the horses 
and chariots turned. The wall had many other ornaments. The whole edifice also 
was highly ornamented ; it was altogether the largest of the kind, although there were 
in Rome eight other places for races and games, called Circi At one end were 12 
openings or parts separated by walls, called career es, where the horses and chariots 
stood waiting for the signal to start. [Not far from the carceres, a whitened rope (alba 
linea) was drawn across the circus ; one half of it marking the commencement, and 
the other half the end, of the race.] Those who governed the chariots, were divided 
into certain classes (faclio?ies or greges), distinguished by dresses of different colors. 
The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun. 

2. Pliny (Hist. N. xxxvi. 24) states the number of persons which the Circus Maximtis was 
capable of containing as 260,000 ; and the authority of Aurelius Victor has been cited for the 
number of 385,000. — Of the other structures of this class the following w< j re the principal : the 
Circus Flaminius; the Circus Mexandrinus ; the Circus Sail usticus ; the Circus Florialis, or Va- 
ticanus, finished by Nero in a splendid style, and signalized as the scene where numbers of the 
early Christians suffered martyrdom under that emperor; the obelisk in the centre of the peris- 
tyle of St. Peter was taken from the spina of this circus ; the Circus Caracalla; the Circus Do- 
mitim— On the Via Appia there still remains the ground plan, with part of the superstructure, 
of a small circus, commonly called the Circus of Caracalla. 

Grxvius, as cited § 197. 1. vol. ix. ; and Polenus, as there cited, vol. v.— G. L. Sianconi, Discrizione dei Circhi partioolarmente 
di quello di Caracalla, &c. Con note C. Fea. Rom. 17S0. fol. — Burgess, The Circus on the Appian Way.— Smith, Diet, of Anti- 
quities. 

3 u. The Ludi Circenses were commonly held but once a year ; sometimes they 
were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained at public 
cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, pompa circensis, moved from the 
Capitol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid carriages or frames (in thensis 
etferculis), or on men's shoulders (inhumeris), followed by a great train, on horseback 
or on foot, with the combatants, musicians, &c. Sacred rites were then performed, 
and the games opened. 

% 233 u. The games or shows (spectacula) in the Circus were of four kinds ; chariot- 
races, with two or four horses; contests of agility and strength, such as wrestling (lucla), 
boxing (pugilatus), throwing the discus (disci jactus), leaping (saltus), and running 
(cursus) ; representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including 
the Ludus TrojcB (Virg. JEn. v. 545); fighting of wild beasts (venatio). — To describe 
these particularly would exceed our limits. Many of the exercises, however, cor- 
responded to those of the Greeks (cf. §§ 78 — 83). The victors were rewarded with crowns 
and sometimes with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a 
palm-branch, which he bore in his hand. 

1. We have in fig. B, of Plate XVI. a victorious Roman charioteer, with the palm in his right hand, and the reins in his left; he 
is closely girded about the chest and body. 

See Brottier, Le jeux du Cirque, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 487— Mongez, Sur les animaux promenes ou tues 
dans les Cirques, in the Mem. de Vlnttitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. x. p. 360. 

2 u. At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibited, not in the 
Circus ; particularly the Naumachioe, or representations of naval battles. These ori- 
ginally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or excavations made for 
the purpose and filled with water, which were also called Naumachice. The vessels 
were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes, and many 
lost their lives or were severely wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in 
the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose. 

3. Claudius is said (Toe. Ann. xx. 56.— Suet. Claud. 21) to have exhibited a magnificent sea-fight on lake Fucinus, in which there 
were fifty ships on each side, with 19,000 combatants (naumacMarii).— Representations of naval battles were common under the 
emperors, and are commemorated on some of the imperial coins. — See Scheffer, De Militia Navali. 

§ 234. The Ludi Saeculares, or centurial games, were solemnized with much 
ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the lapse of a century, but 
sometimes a little earlier or a little later; usually in the month of April. For this 
occasion long preparations were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted, 
and a sort of general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously 
made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal world as well 
as those of Olympus, and while the men attended banquets of the gods in their 
temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of Juno. Thank-offer- 
ings were also presented to the Genii. 

1 u. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a large theatre on 
the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of Apollo and 
Diana. On the second day the Roman matrons were collected to offer sacrifice in the 
Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Diano. 
was sung in the temple of Palatine Apollo, by a select band of young men and virgins, 



244 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of Patrician rank. The carmen soeculare of Horace was prepared to be thus sung, at 
the command of Augustus, in whose reign the games were celebrated. 

The first celebration took place in the reign of Augustus, B.C. 17 (Tac. Ann. xi.ll); the second in the reign of Claudius, A. D. 47 
{Suet. Claud. 21) ; the third in the reign of Domitian, A. D. 88 ; and the last in the reign of Philippus, A. D. 248, just one thousand 
years after the building of Rome.— Cf. Hartung, Die Relig. d. Rom.— On the chronology of these games, Class. Journal, xvii. 351. 

2 to. To the religious solemnities, which were held for the purpose of securing the 
safety of the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered 
this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic 
plays, and the feats of jugglers (prcesligiatores), persons who seemed to fly in the air 
(petauristce), rope-dancers (funambuli), and the like. 

The rope-dancer (KaXopdr-qs, (rxoivo/3dTijs) seems usually to have been a Greek {Juv. iii. 80). Some of the paintings found at 
Herculaneum exhibit funambuli placing themselves in a great variety of attitudes, in the character of bacchanals, satyrs, and the 
like.— See the work styled Aritichi d'Ercolario (cited P. IV. § 243. 2), vol. iii.— A few of the figures are given in Smite, Diet, of 
Antiq. p. 434. 

§ 235. The gladiatorial shows, Ludi Gladiatorii, were greatly admired in 
Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would impart pleasure to 
the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were 
held; in the latter view they were appointed, e. g. at the funerals, or in com- 
memoration, of the deceased. 

1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the ancient 
custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the departed. At 
Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals ; afterwards they were given by 
the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especially on the 
festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. 

The gladiators (gladiator es, /xovofxtixoi) were supported at public expense. Their resi- 
dence or place of instruction was called ludus, a name often given to any arena or 
building, where such exercises were learned or practiced ; their overseer was termed 
procurator, and their instructor, lanista. In the public spectacles, the combat was often 
carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of 
the crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was originally indeterminate, and 
until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore various names according to their armor and 
their mode of fighting. 

2. The gladiators termed secutores were armed with helmet, shield, and sword. 
They were usually matched with the reliarii, who were dressed in a short tunic with 
nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed lance (tridens or fuscina), 
and in the right a net (rete) in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. The 
mirmillones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their 
helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thraces. The essedarii fought 
from chariots, and the equites on horseback ; the andabalas wore helmets which covered 
their eyes, and according to some writers, fought on horseback. Several other classes 
are named. — It is to be observed that the term gladiatores included those who fought 
with beasts as well as those who fought with men ; although the former were termed 
distinctively bestiarii. 

3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves ; but afterwards 
free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An advertisement 
or public notice (libellus) was put up by the person (editor) who intended to exhibit a 
gladiatorial show, with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or 
picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena iii 
procession, and then matched for the contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it 
was a sign of being vanquished ; his fate depended on the spectators ; if they wished 
him to be saved, they pressed down their thumbs ; if to be slain, they turned up their 
thumbs (pollicem premebant or vertebant). If a vanquished gladiator was spared, he 
was said to receive his discharge, which was termed missio, hence an exhibition in which 
the lives of the vanquished were not to be saved was said to be sine missione. — Vast 
numbers of men and of brute animals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the 
triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 
animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully sup- 
pressed until the time of Honorius. 

In Plate XXX. are several figures illustrating this subject, which are taken from sculptures 
on the tomb of Scaurus found at Pompeii. Fig. 1 represents an equestrian combat ; the anda- 
hatm are clothed in the short cloak (inducula), and armed with the lance, round buckler (parma), 
helmet with a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on the right arm. — Two gladiators on 
foot appear in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet and the subligaculum, a short apron fixed 
above the hips by a girdle. Fig. 3 has armor on the right arm, and holds the seutvm, or long 
shield ; on his right leg is a kind of buskin, and on his left the ocrea or greave ; the rest of the 
body is naked; he has lowered his shield as being vanquished, and raised his hand to implore 
mercy of the spectators. Fig. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from them, whether to 
spare" his antagonist or strike the death-blow; he carries a smaller shield, has armor upon his 
thighs and the high greaves upon his legs. — Fig. 6 presents a group of four gladiators; two arc 
followers (secutores), and two net-men (retiarii). One of the secutores is wounded in the leg, 



TLATE XXX. 




245 



x2 



246 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

thigh, and arm, and, having in vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee appa- 
rently to receive from the sword of his comrade a more speedy death than would be likely from 
the trident of his antagonist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to insult his conquered 
rival. The other retiarius is waiting to fight in his turn with the secutor who is hastening to 
end the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures are the 
sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by them on 
the arena. The Fig. 8, with a lance in each hand, is from a group on the same tomb representing 
a young bestiarius preparing himself to contend in the arena. — Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on 
this tomb, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven through his breast, and 
rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded. 

See Mazois, as cited P. IV. § 243. 2.— Pompeii, p. 2S1, as cited P. IV. 226. 1. For minute details respecting gladiators, cf. /. 

Lipsius, Saturnalia, in his Works. Ant. 1637. 6 vols. fol. 

§ 236. The Ludi Florales were united with the festival of the goddess Flora, 
held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were instituted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; 
afterwards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed again in con- 
sequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their 
omission. They lasted from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d 
of May; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged in the celebration wore 
garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended 
to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ; 
and the asdiks curuks, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities 
of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus. 

§ 237 /. There were other games or sports (ludi), which we may just men- 
tion here. 

The Ludi Megalenses, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with 
shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (imditare) between persons of the 
higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the memory of the rape of Pro- 
serpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The Martiales, dedicated 
to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The Apollinares, in honor of Apollo, and generally 
scenical. — 'The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from 
the Gauls. — The Plebeii, in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the re- 
covery of freedom. — The Consuales, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the 
seizure of the Sabine women. — 'The Ludi Auguslales (ZtPaara, and 'AvyovaraXia), in 
honor of Augustus. — The Ludi Piscatorii, held on the sixth of June, near the Tiber, 
in behalf of the fishermen. — Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludi 
votivi, the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war ; 
among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quinquennales , de- 
cennales, &c, given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class 
called exlraordinarii, belonged such as were held at funerals, called Ludi Funebres ; 
and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called 
Ludi Juvenales. 

§ 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dramatic {ludi 
scenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and ampitheatreswere used. — In the first ages, 
theatres were constructed merely of wood, and were taken down after being used. 
Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. 
Their construction was similar to that of Greek theatres ; one side or end had 
the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rec- 
tangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built 
B. C. 59 by the aedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and so 
capacious that eighty thousand spectators could sit in it. The theatres of 
Pompey and Marcellus were also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part 
still remains. 

1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf. P. IV. § 235), consisted of three parts, 
the scena, orchestra, and cavea ; but the two latter are sometimes included under one 
(the cavea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage 
(or scena) ; and fhe rows of seats in the orchestra were occupied by the senators, 
foreign ambassadors, and especially distinguished personages. The next fourteen 
rows of the cavea were assigned to the equites, and the rest of the people. Women 
occupied the portico surrounding the whole, by an "arrangement of Augustus. — The 
stage, or portion allotted to the performers, had several parts distinguished by name ; 
one part was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a 
whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or scenery ; the part sometimes concealed 
by a curtain (aulaum), which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when 
it was necessary to hide the scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called 
exostra) ; columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent 
character were exhibited, according to the nature of the plays. The ■postscenium was 
a place behind the scene, where the actors changed their dresses, and the proscenium 



P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AMPHITHEATRES. 247 

was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when 
speaking was termed pulpitum (\oysiov, cf. § 89). 

A plan of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate XLIX. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle 
BHBII is the orchestra; the circle is presented complete with the four equilatrial triangles in- 
scribed, in order to show the manner of determining the places for the sceva, the postscenivm, 
and the cunei ; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall severally on the ends of 
the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits required ; the diameter 
(HH) of the orchestra was usually one-third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theatre. 
The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of th*> orchestra. 

2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans are mentioned 
particularly in another part of this work ; see P. V. §§ 308-320. — Among the musical 
instruments employed were the flute, and the lyre or harp, and in later times the hy- 
draulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common accompaniments of comedy 
were the flutes termed tibiae dcxtrae or Lydiae, and tibiae sinistrae or Serrance or Tyriae; 
the terms pares^ and impares are also applied to them. There has been some disagree- 
ment as to what these terms mean. It is most commonly supposed that the musician 
used two flutes at once or a double flute ; that the sinistra had but few holes and 
sounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when 
these two were united they were termed impares, and took the other names because 
one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dextroe or tw r o 
sinistrae were united and played upon by the musician, they were called pares. 

A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute ; see our Plate XXVI. fig. a, and cf. § 180. 2. 
—The use of the double flute is seen also in Plate XLIX. fig. B, and in Plate XXIX.— Boltiger, Die Erfindung der Fldte, in vol. ii. 
of Frteland's Attisches Museum.— A. Manutius. De Tibiis Veterum, in Ugolinus, vol. xxxii. as cited § 197. 

3. Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian ; 
and were probably similar to those of the Greeks. Cf. § 89. 2. 

Several masks are represented in the beautiful mosaic given in Plate XLIX. fig. BB. — On theatres, plays, masks, &c. cf. Btrnardi, 
Les jeux sceniques chez les Romains, in the Mem. de-V Inst Hut, C 1 asse i'Hist. el Lit. Anc. vol. viii. p. 250. — Dunlop, as cited 
P. V. § 299. 8 — Work styled Pompeii, cited P. IV. § 226. — J. L. Falricius, De Ludis Scenicis, in Gronovius, vol. viii. — Bbttiger, 
Prolus. de Personis scenicis, vulgo Larvis. Vinariae, 1794. 4.— Francisco de Ficcroni, Dissertatio de larvis scenicis, &c. Rom. (the- 
atrical Masques of the Romans). Rom. 1736. 4. with plates.— Boindin, Sur les Masques, &c. in the Mem. de V.lcad. aes Inscr. 
vol. iv. p. 132. 

§ 239. The first amphitheatre was built B. C. 45 by Julius Caesar, but merely 
of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of which, 
under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum (from a colossal statue of Nero, which 
stood near it), constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome. 
The form of ampitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were generally used for 
gladiatorial shows and the fighting of wild beasts. Both theatres and amphi- 
theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods. 

1. The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus Curio 
actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of this 
sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, in which dra- 
matic plays were performed in the morning ; then by machinery for the purpose he 
suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other, thus constituting an amphi- 
theatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is some- 
times put for the amphitheatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the 
gladiators fought, and was so called from its being covered with sand. The arena was 
surrounded with a wall, guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sockets, to pre- 
vent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded 
with a ditch filled with water (euripus). Next around the arena was the podium, raised 
12 or 15 feet above it, projecting over the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. On 
this gallery or terrace, which was wide enough for two or three rows of moveable 
seats, senators, ambassadors, and persons of special distinction were seated ; here also 
the emperor had his seat (suggestus, or cubiculum). Above the podium were the fixed 
seats (gradus), divided into stories or sloping portions called m<z?iia?ia. The first, next 
to the podium, included fourteen rows of marble seats appropriated to the Equites. In 
the second and third mceniana, were seats occupied by the people and called popularia. 
The maeniana were separated by passages {prcecinctiones) running in the direction of the 
seats ; there were also passages (scalae.) running transversely ; thus were formed several 
compartments in the shape of wedges {cunei). The women, after they were allowed 
to attend the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to the whole of 
these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the 
amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled Villicus ampliilheatri, and persons, 

called designators, were employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. By 

a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret tubes around these 
structures, and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues which adorned 
the interior. — The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for covering the vast 
area embraced in such a building; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes 
stretched across the building and attached to masts or spars, which rose above the sum- 



248 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

mit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 200 
projecting blocks of stone, with holes cut to receive the ends of the spars, which ran up 
through holes cut in the cornice. 

2. In our Plate XXX. fig. 7, is a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Its extreme length, 
from outside to outside of the exterior arcade, is 430 feet; its greatest breadth is 335 feet. It 
consists chiefly of the rough masonry called opus incertum, with quoins of squared stone, and 
some trifling restorations of rubble. This rude mass was probably once covered with a facing 
of hewn stone. — At each end of the ellipse are entrances into the arena for the combatants; 
through these also the dead bodies were dragged out into the spoliarium. On the podium were 
found several inscriptions containing the names of the duumvirs who had presided ; there were 
also fresco-paintings, which soon disappeared on being exposed to the atmosphere. There are 
twenty-four rows of seats ; and the building, as has been estimated, would accommodate above 
10,000 persons sitting, besides such, as might stand. 

Comte de Caylus, Theatre of Curio, in the Mem. Acad. Lisa-, xxiii. 369.— Cf. Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. On various 

exislin; ruins of amphitheatres, Stuart's Diet, of Architecture. Lond. 1S32. 3 vols. 8.— A. Gordon, History of the Ancient Amphi- 
theatres, translated from the Italian of Maffei. Lond. 8. 

II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 

§ 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of Rome it is 
necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its history; particularly 
to notice the three different forms of government which were successively es- 
tablished, the regal, consular, and imperial. The first continued 244 years to 
B. C. 510; the second 479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the 
overthrow of the western empire, A. D. 476, and afterwards in the eastern. — 
Under the Kitigs the government was of a mixed character, and we should esti- 
mate the powers of the kings by a reference to the early kings and princes 
among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according 
to more modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives of 
the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the superintendence 
of the legislation and of judicial decisions, and the assembling of the senate and 
the people; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in most 
cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the people had in the 
public concerns. 

1 u. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted 
of a golden crown, a chair (sella) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter 
of the same material, with an eagle on its extremity, a white robe (toga) with purple 
embroidery or borderings, &c. , a body of twelve attendants (lictores), who went before 
the king, carrying each a bundle of rods (fasces) with an ax (securis) in the middle. 

In our Plate XXXI. fig. 1, is a cut representing the securis bound up in the fasces. The fasces 
are often represented on the consular coins. — Fig. 3, is a group of royal scepters, drawn from 
Egyptian monuments; showing various forms and ornaments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI. 
fig. 1, and fig. 3, where scepters are seen in the hands of Jupiter and Juno. 

2 u. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for 
the probable reigns of only seven kings, which is the number specified in the traditions 
respecting this period. But it must be remarked that the whole of the early Roman 
history is at least uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous. Cf. P. V. $ 510. 

§ 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution became aristocratical. 
Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and influence which 
the kings had possessed, and called Consuls (consules). No particular age was 
originally requisite for this office, but a law (lex annalis) was enacted 180 B. C, 
that it should be held by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought 
the office, were called candidati, from their peculiarly white shining robe (toga 
Candida). The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by 
Centuries, usually towards the end of July or the beginning of August. From 
that time until January of the following year, the person chosen was called con- 
sul designatus, and then he entered upon his office under many solemnities. 
The two consuls had equal power. At first, both were chosen from the patri- 
cians ; afterwards, however, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from the 
plebeians. 

1 u. Their badges of office were the same as those of the kings, excepting the golden 
crown, and the robe with purple ornaments ; the latter was allowed them on certain 
public solemnities, as e. g. a triumph. 

2 u. The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, assembling the senate, 
declaring the votes, among which they first gave their own, in proposing business to 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PR.ETORS. jEDILES. 249 

the senate and the people, fixing the comitia, appointing the judges, and preparing de- 
clarations of war. They were also usually commanders of the army, and were required 
to attend to all its wants, and inform the senate of all important occurrences. After 
completing the year of their office they were, usually proconsuls or governors of pro- 
vinces. The power of the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution 
of the office of dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which authorized appeals 
from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more 
than the mere name remained ; they were merely the agents to execute the imperial 
will, to whom a few privileges were secured. In the later ages also, their number was 
increased, and the term of continuance very short. The office was preserved until 

A. D. 541 (after the overthrow of the western empire, cf. P. I. § 214. 6), when it was 
conferred upon the reigning emperor for life. 

§ 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Caesar, 
prepared the way for introducing the imperial government; which was established in 
the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government 
now became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors adhered, in form, 
to the old usages and customs in a great degree. But under Tiberius, the immediate 
successor of Augustus, the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under 
succeeding emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated 
if] their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices were 
created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government was at length 
turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and luxury. 

De la Bletterie, on the Roman Government under the Emperors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 357, and xxi. 299, power of 
Emperors ; vol. xxiy. 261, power of Consuls ; vol. xv. 392, of Tribunes; xxvii. 438, of Senate.— Gottling, Geschichte der Rojn. 
Staatsverfassung. Halle, 1840. 

§ 243. Praetor was in early times the name for any magistrate, signifying 
merely an overseer, superintendarit, or leader (from praeire). But, in the year 

B. C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer appointed to attend to the 
administration of justice. The Praetor was at first chosen from patricians, 
when the consulship was communicated to the plebeians. Two Praetors were 
chosen after the year B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens 
{Praetor urbanus), the other the business of strangers {Praetor peregrinus). 
Afterward there were four Praetors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, and even 
eighteen, until Augustus, it seems, limited the number to twelve. 

1 v. The dignity of the city- Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his principal 
business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal {in or pro tribunali), a building 
appropriated to the purpose in the Forum {% 261). The Praetor on entering upon his 
office, always published a statement of the rules and principles by which he should be 
guided in his trials and decisions ; this was called his edict (edictum Prcetoris). The 
usual form in giving his decisions was do, dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, 
the city-Praetor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Co- 
mitia ; he had the care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the 
Praetor were the toga prcetexta, a sword and a spear (gladius e.t hasta), and an atten- 
dance of six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, 
in the same manner as the Proconsuls took the place of Consuls. 

2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Praetor published particular 
edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were 
termed trulatitia; those framed by himself, nova. An edict published at Rome, 
edictum urbanum; in a province, provinciate; sometimes named from the province, as 
edictum Siciliense. Other magistrates (Jwnorati) published edicts also. The law de- 
rived from all the various edicts was termed jus honorarium; this term or phrase, in 
later times, was applied to a collection of Praetor's edicts regularly arranged by order 
of the emperor Hadrian ; the same was also called edictum perpetuum. 

Bouchard; Sur les Edits des magistrats Romains, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxix. 279, edicts of Consuls ; vol. xli. p. 1. of Pnetors; 
xlii. 149, of JEdiles ; xlv. 439, of Praefects.— D. E. Schrader, Die Priltorisehen Edicte. Weim. 1815.— Rein, Das Romische Privat- 
recht, &c. Leipz. 1836. 

§ 244. JEdiles were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the care of the 
buildings (aedes). They were of two classes, plebeii and curules, two of each. 
The former were created first, B. C. 493; the latter, B. C. 266. At a later 
period, Julius Caesar added two others, called Cereales who had the oversight 
of the stores of grain and provision. In the Roman provinces, also, there were 
iEdiles whose office was usually but for a year. — The office seems to have con- 
tinued until the time of Constantine the Great. 

] u. The JEdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public and private buildings ; 
and were required to make arrangements for the public games, see to the preservation 
32 



250 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

of the public roads, regulate the markets, prove the justness of weights and measures, 
and in short attend to the police of the city. 

2 u. The JEdiles Curules were distinguished from them by the toga prcetexta, and 
the sella curulis. They were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards 
also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. They had also 
the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the 
plebeian iEdiles, with whom the Curules probably shared, without distinction, the 
business of the police. 

For the history, duties, &c. of the iEdiles, see Schubert, De Romanorum iEdilibus. Regiom. 1828. 8. 

§ 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes of the 
people (tribuni pkbis) were the most remarkable. The office originated from 
the general disaffection and secession of the plebeians, B. C. 493. The number 
was first two, then five, finally ten. One of them always presided at the Com- 
itia for electing tribunes. Their proper object was the protection of the people 
against the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this 
office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families. In 
the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but had their seats 
before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and 
could hinder the passage of any decree by the single word veto. By the Atinian 
law, B. C. 131, it was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena- 
tors. Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was confined 
to the city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not be 
absent over night. 

1 u. The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a kind of beadles 
called viatores, who went before them. Their persons were regarded as inviolable. 
Sylla abridged their power ; he took from them the right, which they had exercised, of 
assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments (plebiscita) binding 
upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their negative or intercession 
(intercedere). Their authority, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under 
Julius/ Caesar it was small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf. 
§ 242), who appropriated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes an- 
nually elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished 
in the time of Constantine the Great. 

2. The office of the Military Tribunes was highly important, but is not ranked among the 
permanent offices. Cf. $ 248. 

§ 246. The Quaestors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, first ap- 
pointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the people. They 
were charged with receiving and managing the revenues, and with the scrutiny 
of certain kinds of bloodshed. Those for the city were called Qusestores urbcmi; 
those for the provinces, Qusestores provinciates ,• and those for the examination of 
capital offences, Qusestores rerum capitalium, or parricidii. Originally there 
were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number to 
twenty, and Julius Caesar to forty. 

1 u. The Quaestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of foreign am- 
bassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect publicly 
authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were at first 
taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians. 

Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called queestores candidati, who 
were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or secretaries, and 
were afterwards called juris interpreter , precum arbitri, &c, from their employment. 
Still later there was another kind, of considerable importance, styled Queestores palalii, 
or JS'Iagislri offtciorum. 

2. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by Au- 
gustus to 22. The office was one of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth, 
although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. 

Dodwdl, de Quaesturge obeundae tempore legitimo, in his Prselect. Acad. p. 362, as cited P. V. § 542. 7.— Walter, Gesehichte des 
Rom. Rechts. 

§ 247. The office of the Censors (Censores) was established at an early period, 
B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their office originally for five 
years, but afterwards only a year and a half. Their duties were various; the 
following were some of the principal ; to take the census of the people, an ac- 
curate account of the age, property, and descent of each head of a family, to 
divide the people into their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution, 



P. HI. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. 251 

to decide the taxes of each person, to enroll those who were obligated to military 
service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect the morals 
of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts 
respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, aqueducts and the like. 

] u. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace (nota censoria, ignombiia), 
from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to them suitable. The luxury 
of the Romans, which in later times became so excessive, was considerably restrained 
by the censors. In order to escape the censorial rebukes or punishments, the office 
seems to have been left vacant for some time. 

2. The censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of 
Prcefectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus also assumed 
the power, although he declined the title. The same was done by several of his suc- 
cessors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the corruption of morals was 
too great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind. 

De. Valois, On the Roman Censors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 63.—ffieluhr>s Hist, of Rome, vol. ii. p. 296, ed. Phil. 1835. 

§ 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common division was 
into ordinary and extraordinary (Magistratus Ordinarii and Exlraordinarii). The 
chief of the former have been noticed : Consuls, Praetors, iEdiles, Tribunes of the 
people, Quaestors, and Censors.— The chief of the extraordinary magistrates (whose 
office was not permanent, but occasional, being necessary only in particular circum- 
stances) were the following ; Dictator, Decemvirs, Military Tribunes, Praefect of the 
City, and Interrex. 

1 u. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection 
which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (§ 245) ; and similar dis- 
turbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occasioned the appointment 
of the subsequent Dictators. Sometinies they were appointed for less important reasons, 
e. g. for regulating the public games and sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by 
the people, but by one of the Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by 
the consul by order of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The 
power of the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the 
decision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who were condemned 
to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf. Liv. viii. 33). The power and office of 
the Dictator was limited to six months. He could not appropriate without consent of 
the senate or people any of the public money. As commander of the army, he was 
confined to the limits of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this office so much 
as Cornelius Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and after 
his death the dictatorship was abolished. It was, however, offered to Augustus, who 
refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 

2. Plutarch and Polybius state that the Dictator was attended by twenty-four lictors ; but in 
the epitome of the 89th book of Livy, Sylla is said to have unwarrantably assumed this number 
(Kenrtett, p. 123). The Dictator appointed (usually from among those of consular or prfetorian 
dignity) an officer, styled Magister equitum, whose business was to command the cavalry, and 
execute the orders of the Dictator ; but this officer was sometimes appointed by the seriate, or 
the people ; he was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order 
of the people.— Sometimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was invested with the power 
of Dictator, by decree of the seriate (ne quid detrimenti capiat respublica). 

3 u. The discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made of their 
power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri, 
with consular authority {decemviri consular i yoteslate, s. legibus ferendis). They were 
appointed for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws 
of the twelve tables (cf. § 265). As they soon began to abuse their great power, the 
office was abolished, B. C. 449, and that of Consul restored. 

4 u. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of Military 
T 'ribunes (t r ibuni mililum consulari pot estate), who, in the year B. C. 445, were ap- 
pointed in the place of Consuls; but were dismissed after three months. Originally 
they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians ; afterwards the number 
varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military tribunes and 
sometimes consuls were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed, 
until the year B. C. 36G, when the plebeians were quieted by the choice of a consul 
from among themselves. 

5 u. The Praefect of the city (Prosfectus urbi) was the officer to whom the Consuls in 
their absence, especially in war, intrusted the charge of the police. Under the emperors 
this became a regular and permanent office of great influence. 

6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there was no consul or 
magistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the title of the 
temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a vacancy in the 
throne under the regal government. 

§249. Less important occasional magistrates were the following; the Frdfectus 
aiuwnce, charged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases of scarcity : the 



252 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Quinqueviri mensarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses (minuendis 
publicis sumtibus) ; the Quinqueviri muris turribusque refieiendis, to see to repairs in 
the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri cedibus sacris refieiendis, to repair the sacred 
buildings; Triumviri monetales, having charge of the mint; Triumviri nocturni, to 
superintend the nightly watch ; Duumviri navales (plassis ornandoz reficiend&que causa), 
for equipping and repairing the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not magistrates 
in the proper sense, but they were chosen from among the most respectable men. 

The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparitores; under 
which were included scribte, notarii, actuarii, accensi, coactores, praecones, interpre- 
tetes, lictores, viatores, &c. — The Camifex was the executioner or hangman. 

§ 250. Besides the magistrates which have been named, permanent or 
occasional, there were various others whose authority pertained to the provinces 
of Rome, provincial magistrates. These were in part such as have been 
named. Among them were the proconsuls, propraetors, proqueestors, the legates, 
conquisitors, &c. 

Proconsuls were either (1) such as being consuls had their office prolonged beyond 
the time fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to govern some 
province or to command in war ; or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately 
on the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces assigned to their charge under 
the commonwealth ; or (4) such as were appointed governors of the provinces under 
the empire ; as all these were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly 
belonged to the third of these classes. — The senate decided from" year to year what 
provinces should be consular ; and then the consuls, while only designati (cf. § 241), agreed 
by lot which of them each should take on the expiration of his consulship. A vote of 
the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their 
departure to their provinces and return to the city was often attended with great pomp. 
They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, but it was limited to a 
year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most commonly 
charged were (1) crimen peculatus , ill use of the public money, (2) majestatis, treachery 
or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repetundantm, ex- 
tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. 

The Proprcetors were such as, after their praetorship, received provinces, in which 
for a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. Their creation, 
administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the Proconsuls ; only they 
had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were usually smaller 

than the consular ; cf. § 260. 3. (4). The Legati were the chief assistants of the Pro- ' 

consuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief officer, and 
the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained important authority as 
military commanders. One Quasstor or more attended each Proconsul or Proprae- 
tor. His business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the 
army. Proquaestors were such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on the ab- 
sence or death of the provincial Quaestor (cf. § 246). The duties of the Quaestor were 

assigned under the emperors to the officer styled Procurator Ccesaris. The conqui- 

shores were inferior officers not properly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers, 
and by force if necessary. 

§ 251. We may notice here the division or classification of the people, which 
had throughout an important influence on the government. — At the beginning, 
Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into three tribes, and each 
of these into ten Curiae. The tribes were the Rhamnensis, consisting of native 
Romans, the Taliensis, of Sabines, and the tribus Lucerum, of all other foreigners. 
— Servius Tullius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city 
(tribus urbarids), and 26 for the territories (tribus ruslicas). The latter at length 
• gained the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honorable. 
Five tribes were added at a later period ; and also others, which were not 
permanent. 

The four city tribes were Suburana or Succusana, Esquilina, Collina, Palatina ; the rustic 
tribes, Romilia, Lemonia, Pupina, Galeria, Pollia, Voltinia, Claudia, iEmilia, Cornelia, Fubia, 
Iloratia, Menenia, Papiria, Sergia, Veturia, Crustiimina ; these belonged to the proper Roman 
territory; in addition there were the Etrurian tribes, Vejentina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Saba- 
tina, Arniensis, Pomptina, Publilia or Papilia, Moecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Falerina; and the 
Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Quirina; making thiity-one. 

Boivin, On the Rom. Tribes, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vol. i. 72.— G. C. T. Francke, De Tribuum Curiarum, atque Centuriarum 
Ratioiie. Schlesw. 1624. Respecting the buildings termed Curix, cf. P. I. § 61. 

§ 252. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman citizens, for the sake of an 
equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes according to pro- 
perty. These classes were subdivided into centuries amounting in all to 193. In 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS. PLEBEIANS. 253 

order to preserve this distribution, an ordinance was established requiring the 
census and valuation to be taken every five years (cf. § 247). 

" The first class consisted of those whose estates in lands and effects were worth at 
least 100,000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 10,000 drachma according to the Greek 
way of computing ; which sura is commonly reckoned equal to £322, 18s. 4d. sterling ; 
but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 asses, as was the case afterwards, 
it will amount to £7750. This first class was subdivided into eighty centuries or com- 
panies of foot, forty of young men (juniorum), from seventeen to forty-six years of age, 
who were obliged to take the field {ut foris bella gererent), and forty of old men (se- 
niorum), who should guard the city {ad urbis custodiam ut praesto essent). To these 
were added eighteen centuries of Equites, who fought on horseback; in all ninety- 
eight centuries.— -The second class consisted of twenty centuries, ten of young men, 
and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To these were added 
two centuries of artificers (fabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. to manage the engines of 
war. — The third class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 50,000 
asses. — The fourth class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 25,000 
asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — The fifth class 
was divided into thirty centuries; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dio- 
nysius 12,500. — The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or 
were not worth so much as those of the fifth class. The number of them was so great 
as to exceed that of any of the other classes; yet they were reckoned as but one century. 
— 'Thus the number of centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193. 

Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according to 
the valuation of their fortunes. — 'Those of the first class were called Classici; all the 
rest were said to be Infra Classem; hence classici auctores, for the most approved 
authors (A. Gell. vii. 13. xix. 8). 

By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who com- 
posed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more centuries 
than all the rest put together ; but they likewise bore the charges of peace and war (munia 
pads et belli) in proportion. For as the votes of the Comitia, so likewise the quota of 
soldiers and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. Accordingly the first class, 
which consisted of ninety-eight, or, according to Livy, of one hundred centuries, 
furnished more men and money to the public service than all the rest of the state 
besides. But they had likewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by 
centuries. For the Equites and the centuries of this class were called first to give 
their votes, and if they were unanimous the matter was determined ; but if not, then 
the centuries of the next class were called, and so on, till a majority of centuries had 
voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest 
(Liv. i. 43. Dionys. vii. 59)." (Adam.) 

Huschke, Die Verfassurig des Servius Tullius. Leipz 1838. — Zumpt, Ueber die Abstimmung des Rom.Volkes in Centuriat Comitien. 
—Unterholzner, De Mutata Centuriatorum Cotnit. a Serv. Tull. Reg. ins!itutorum Ratione. Bresl. 1835. 

§ 253. x\nother division of the Romans, existing from the earliest times, was 
into Patricians and Plebeians, according to family descent. The Patricians 
were the descendants of the Senators appointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Patres y 
of whom he selected three from each tribe, and three from each curia, making 
ninety-nine; to these he added a man of distinguished merit, so that the Senate 
originally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were admitted 
into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this num- 
ber by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who were termed Patres minorum 
gentium, to distinguish them from the original Senators, and their descendants 
were called Patricii minorum gentium. 

1 u. The word populus had among the Romans a more general meaning than plebs; 
the former signified the whole body of the Roman people ; the latter, a particular por- 
tion distinct from the senators and the knights, and called also, ordo plebeius. In early 
times, this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the 
republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we denominate the populace. 

2. There is some disagreement as to the time when the formal distinction between 
Patricians and the Plebeians really commenced. The existence of Plebeians in the 
time of Romulus is implied in some passages of ancient authors (cf. Liv. i. 8. Dionys. 
i. 8. ii. 9). But Niebuhr and others have maintained that the Plebeian commonality 
arose out of the removing to Rome of the citizens of Alba, after its destruction in the 
reign of Tullus Hostilius ; that before that time the Patricians included the whole body 
of the populus Romanus; that in the time of Servius the Plebeians were established 
in their distinctive character as free hereditary proprietors ; and that from this time the 
Roman nation consisted of two estates, the populus or body of burghers, and the plebs 
or commonality. 

See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 231, 309. ed Phil. 1835.— Rein, in Ersch und Grilber, Encyclopadie ; and Schmitz, in 
Smiths Diet, of Anliq. p. 726, 765. 

Y 



254 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 254. The patricians and plebeians were from the beginning greatly at 
variance. The former at first held all the public offices exclusively. The 
plebeians gained a share in them B. C. 493, as has been already mentioned 
(cf. § 245). After this the patricians often allowed themselves to be adopted 
into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure offices, which were 
common to both ranks, or confined to plebeians, as was the office of tribunes. 
The power of the people rose to a great height during the time of the republic, 
and often was perverted to the greatest abuses. 

1 u. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. 445. Previously 
to intermarriages the only mutual relation was that of patron and client ; in which the 
plebeian made free choice of some patrician as his guardian and patron, and this pa- 
trician in turn was obligated by certain duties to the plebeian as his client. At last 
this relation existed chiefly between masters and freedmen. 

2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many clients, both 
hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of this relation (clientela) were 
considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil (Mn. vi. 605) joins the crime of injuring a 
client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other hand was expected to serve 
his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark 
the Roman history, there seems to have been a mutual and faithful observance of these 
duties. In later times cities and nations chose as patrons distinguished families or 
individuals at Rome. 

§ 255. It is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, and what 
was called Roman nobility (nobilitas Romano). The latter was a dignity result- 
ing from merit, either personal or derived from ancestors, and acquired espe- 
cially by holding a curule office. Patrician descent was not necessary for this, 
although when united with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired 
this nobility themselves, were styled novi homines, 

\u. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility (nobiles) was 
the jus imaginum, which allowed them to form images or busts in painted wax of 
their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls (atria), and carrying them in funeral 
processions (cf. § 340. 3), and at other solemnities. The right was sometimes conferred 
as a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks. The Roman 
history is filled with contests between the old and the new nobility. 

2. A curule office was one which entitled the person holding it to use the sella curulis 
or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, and curule aedile. 

The chair was composed of ivory, or at least highly adorned with it, commonly being a sort 
of "stool without a back, with four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross-pieces, joined 
by a common axis, somewhat in the form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that it 
might be folded together," and thus easily carried by the magistrate in his chariot; hence the 
epithet curulis. (Jlul. Oell. iii. 18.) In our Plate XXXI. fig. 9 is a representation of one an- 
swering the above description. But the sella appears to have been sometimes of a less portable 
form and size, as seen in fig. 2 of this plate. These two figures are from monuments found, the 

one at Pompeii, the other at Herculaneum. The chair above described must be distinguished 

from the sella portatoria, or cathedra ; this was a sedan in which a person sat and was carried 
by slaves, in the manner still common in the east. They were used by private persons as well 
as rulers and officers. They were very frequent in the time of Caesar. (Suet. Cass. 43. Claud. 28.) 
—Fig. 10, in Plate XXXI. is from an Egyptian monument, and serves well to illustrate the sel- 
la portatoria. There are four hearers; a fifth attendant bears a staff in his right hand, perhaps 
the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol richly embroidered is 
stretched behind the occupant of the chair, on a frame for the purpose. The sedan itself is of 
elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devices. — The magistrates in the colonies 
and municipal towns sat on public occasions in a large chair called bisellium ; two of these 
have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of extraordinary work- 
manship. 

See the Museo Borbonico, cited P. IV. § 213. vol. ii. tav. 31. vi. tav. 28.— Pompeii, p. 265. as cited P. IV. § 226. 

§ 256. The Equites formed a distinct body of high rank in Rome (ordo equester). 
They were originally composed of 100 young men taken from each of the three 
tribes, thus making three centuries (300). Their number was greatly increased 
by the kings, so that there were eighteen centuries under Servius Tullius. They 
became at length a distinct order, not including all who served on horseback, 
but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, the order 
received some important prerogatives, being chosen to act as judges, and to 
farm the revenues. The property requisite to qualify one for election as a knight, 
at this period, was 400 thousand sesterces (census equester); the age about 
eighteen ; nobility of descent was not sufficient to secure it. The Censors 
were intrusted with the scrutiny, and they presented to those found worthy, a 



PLATE XXX T. 




255 



256 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

horse at the public expense; hence the phrase, cquo publico merere. The order 
was under the constant supervision of the Censors. 

1. Plebeians as well as Patricians were eligible to this order. The term illustres 
was applied to those descended from ancient families. The number of equites greatly- 
increased under the early emperors. Persons were admitted into the order, if they 
possessed the requisite property, without inquiry into their character, or the free 
birth of their father and grandfather. 

2 u. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring (annulus aureus) or rings, and 
by the tunica angusticlavia, a white tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower 
than that, of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the senators, who 
were frequently chosen from the equestrians. They made annually, on the 15th of 
July, a splendid procession (transvectio) through the city to the Capitol. 

Marquardi, Historia Equitura Romanorum. Berl. 1S40.— Zitmpt, Ueber die Romischen Ritter und den Ritterstand in Rom. Berl. 
1840.— Eybenius, Da Ord. equestri Vet. Romanorum, in Sallengre, vol. i.—P. Burmann, as cited § 338. i. 

§ 257. The Senate, as has been already stated (§ 253), originally consisted 
of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the regal office was 
abolished, of 300. Sylla added 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600. 
Towards the end of the republic, the number was as great as 1000. Augustus 
reduced it to 600. Under his successors the number was not uniformly the 
same. — The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Patres ConscriptL 
Their election was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards 
by the censors, and in one instance, after the battle of Cannse, by a Dictator. 
Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed to attend to the 
election. In the choice of senators, regard was had to character, property, and 
age, which must not be less than twenty-five. 

1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two things ; the 
tunica laticlavia, a tunic or waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple (latus clavus) at- 
tached to it, and high black buskins [calcei or ocrece nigri coloris), which had the letter 
C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also sat in the foremost part 
of the Orchestra. 

2 u. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Praetors, or 
Tribunes of the people, by public summons (edictum), or by means of a herald. In 
the former case the object of assembling was specified. There were, besides, certain 
days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every 
months On festivals and in time of the Comitia when the whole people were as- 
sembled, the senate could not meet. Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the 
Calends and Ides. The place of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be 
set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the Augurs. The temples, and the Ca- 
pitol amongst them, were usually selected, excepting always the Temple of Vesta. — 
The number of members necessary (?iumerus legitimus) to pass a decree (Senatus 
consultum) was 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. The meetings were opened 
early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before and after the 
light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were always offered 
and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold the senate, before entering 
the place of meeting. The magistrate, then, Consul, Praetor, or whoever assembled 
the senate, proposed the business, and the members gave their opinions usually in an 
established order. In important or interesting cases, questions were decided by the 
Senators separating into two parts (itio in partes). The emperors had the right of pro- 
posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission. — 
A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Senatus consultum, and a 
judgment or opinion, Senatus auclaritas; the latter term was applied, when the sen- 
tence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto, 
or was attended with some informality ; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or 
written out, and lodged in the treasury (in JErarium condeba'ntur) in the place of public 
records (tabularium), in the temple of Saturn. 

3. " Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people,, yet they seldom 
enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the 
method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliberate and decree, and 
then the people order. But there were many things of great importance which the 
Senate always determined itself, unless when they were brought before the people 
by the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the Senate seems to have had, not 
from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed 
to themselves guardianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be intro- 
duced, nor altar erected, nor the Sibylline books consulted, without their order.— 
2. The Senate had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at 
pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers, and provisions and 
clothing for their armies. — 3. They settled the provinces, which were annually assigned 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. 257 

to the Consuls and Froetors; and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. 
— They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave 
to foreign ambassadors what answers they thought proper. — 5. They decreed all public 
thanksgivings for victories obtained ; and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph, 
with the title of Imperalor, on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the title of 
King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vote. — 
7. They inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in Rome or other parts of 
Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities. 
— 3. They exercised a power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men 
from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. — 9. They could postpone the 
assemblies of the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases of any 
imminent danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous 
in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, 
Ullimum or Exlrcmum, used to be passed (cf. § 248. 2), That the consuls should take 
care that the republic should receive no harm. 1 '' (Adam.) 

C. Middleton, Treatise on Rom. Senate. Lond. 1747. 8. Also in his Mucell. Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. S.—T. Chapman, 
Essay on the Rom. Senate. Cambr. 1750. 8. — N. Hooke^ Observations on the Roman Senate, as treated by Middleton, Chapman, &c. 
Lond. 1758. 8.—Spdman, Dissertation, Sr.c. in his Trans, of Dionys. Hal. cited P. V. § 247. 4.—J3teUerie, as cited § 242.— Waller, 
Geschichte des Rom. Rechts.— Bach, Zimmerin, &c. cited P. V. § 571. 



§ 258. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Comitia. The 
word comiiium originally signified the place of assembling, which was an 
open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court-house of Hostilius; it was 
afterwards applied to the assembly itself, consisting of three ranks or orders of 
the Roman people, and held at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the 
Capitol. Assemblies of one or two orders were called Concilia ; and less formal 
ones, where merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing 
was decided, were termed Condones. The Comitia were appointed only by the 
higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Prastor. 
The most important subjects were considered in these assemblies, some of which 
have been already mentioned incidentally. 

§ 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be held, 184 in 
number, were called dies comiiiales. Romulus established the Comitia Curia/a, 
in which the votes were given by Curiae (§ 251); Servius Tullius the Comitia 
Centuriaia, in which the people voted by centuries, and which were the most 
important; and the Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comitia Tributa, in 
which the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned 
were termed Plebiscita, and at first were binding only on the plebeians. — The 
election of officers, which became the principal business of the Comitia, was 
chiefly made at the Comitia Centuriaia. These were held in the Campus 
Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might assemble. 

1 u. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied an 
elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or narrow 
passages {ponies, ponliculi) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon as they went to 
vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a balustrade, forming what 
was called the Septa or Ovile. Outside of this the people stood until they were called 
in (intro vocatcp) to vote century by century through the six successive classes. The 
order, in which the centuries voted, was determined by lot (sorlilid), the names being 
thrown into a box (sitella) and drawn out by the presiding magistrate. The votes 
were by means of ballots (tabellai), which were given to each citizen by persons (diri- 
biiores) standing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the 
citizens into a box or chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting 
was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or 
judicial sentences. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed 
to vote. 

2. "By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out the 
tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or point (punctum) in another 
tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by most points 
gave occasion to the phrase, Omne tulit punctum, and the like." (Kennett.) — It is ob- 
vious, that in the Comitia Centuriaia the mode of voting must give the higher classes 
an entire preponderance over the others. 

Respecting the Comitia, see Huschhe, Zumpt, &c. cited § 2">2 — Walter, Geschichte d. R6m. Rechts. Respecting the Campus 

Martius, cf. P. I. § 65.— G. Piranesi, Campus Martius antiquae Urbis. Rom. 1762. fol. 

§ 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several important privileges, 
especially during the freedom of the state. The life and property of a citizen 
were in the power of no one but of the whole people appealed to thereon; no 
33 y2 



258 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

magistrate could punish him by stripes ; he had a full right over his property, 
his children, and his dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of the people 
and in the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full authority 
after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full citizenship in- 
cluding this could be bestowed only by the people ; citizenship embracing the 
other rights could be conferred by the senate also. All freedmen and their 
children were excluded from this right, which is what was properly meant by 
the Jus Quiritium. 

1 u. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, even 
by banishment; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign alle- 
giance. The Jus Quiritium privatum, conferred on the colonies and municipal towns, 
comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; in the case of the Latin colonies 
it was called Jus Latii or Latiniiaiis; of the Italian, Jus Italicum. Still more limited 
were the privileges included in the Jura provinciarum and Jura prafeclurarum. 

2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public; both 
are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes under that 
of Jus civilatis; and sometimes these phrases seem to be limited respectively to the 
rights termed private or public. — To the private, belonged the following; 1. Jus 
libertatis, which secured to each the control of his person ; 2. Jus gentis et families, 
which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control 
over his children ; 4. Jus dominii legitimi, the possession of legal property ; 5. Jus 
testamenti and hcereditatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by will ; 6. Jus 
ttttelcz, the right to appoint by will guardians for his wife and children. To the public, 
belonged the following ; 1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled by the censor; 
2. Jus militice, none but citizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which was after- 
wards abolished ; 3. Jus tributorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned 
to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, 
eligibility to public offices, a right originally confined to patricians, but finally extended 
to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to religious 
worship. — Those who did not possess the rights of citizens (cives) were generally 
termed foreigners (peregrini) wherever they resided. 

3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights ana privileges, which were 
allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The forms of 
government established in such cases may be divided into four. 

(1.) The Colonim or colonies were cities or tracts of country, which persons from Rome were 
sent to inhabit. These persons, although mingling with the conquered natives and occupants, 
gained the whole power in the administration of affairs. In the later periods of the republic 
and under the emperors, many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served out their 
legal time (twenty years, in the foot, or ten in the horse, cf. $ 277), and who after thus laboring 
for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their age in ease 
and plenty. — Trie colonies were scattered over the empire, and governed by laws prescribed to 
them by the Romans. 

Nieluhrh Rome (ed. Phil. 1835), vol. ii. p. 32.— Frontinut, De Coloniis. — Essay in Madvidgii Opuscula (Hauniae, 1834), De 
Jure et Comlitione Coloniarum Pop. Romani. —Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 256. 

(2.) The Municipia were cities, which enjoyed the right of governing themselves by their own 
laws; retaining, if they chose it, such as were in use before their subjection to the R/nnans. 
They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, and their inhabitants had 
the name and some of the rights of Roman citizens. Originally confined to Itaiy, they were 
subsequently formed even in the provinces. The colonics and municipia had similar magis- 
trates; the Duumviri were the chief officers ; the senators were called Decuriones. 

Savigny, Geschichte des Rom. Reclits.— Sauigny, Ueber das Jus Italicum, in the Zeitschrift, &c. vol. v. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
p. iiS.—Niebuhr, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 37. 

(3.) The Prefectures were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for offences 
against the Roman government. They were not suffered to frame their own laws as did the 
municipia, nor to choose their own magistrates, as did both the municipia and the colonise. 

They were governed by a prefect sent annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, 

which were not either colonicc, municipia, or jircefectura, were called civitates fmderata, enjoying 
their own rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only by confederacy or alliance. 

Zumpt, Ueber den Untersohiedder Benennungen Municipium, Colonia, PrEefectura. Berl. 1840. 8. 

(4.) The Provincim were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were 
remodelled as to their governments, at the pleasure of the Romans. They were compelled to 
pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent 
out from Rome, The provinces were termed Prsetorian or Proconsular according as Praetors or 
Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the emperors were governed by propraetors ; 
those belonging to the senate, by proconsuls (cf $ 250). These governors were often tyrranni- 
cal and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious features 
in the Roman administration. 

For illustrations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cicero's Orations azainst Verres-.— Middlctoii's Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 94, as cited 

P. V. § 404. 1. On the Roman provinces, cf. C. Sigonius, De antiquo Jure Provinciarum. Ven. 1568. 4. contained in Grxoius, 

vol. ii. — Surigny, on Gov. of Rom. Provinces, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvii. 64. On the general subject of Roman rights, 

Walter, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts. — Zimrnern, cited P. V. 5 571.— C. Sigonius, De Antiquo Jure Populi Romani. Boa. 
1574. fol. Also in his Opera Omnia. Medio!. 1737. 6 vols. fol. 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 259 

§ 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and 
private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved the general peace and 
security; the latter, the claims and rights of individuals. The public or crimi- 
nal trials (judicia publico) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The latter 
were such as belonged not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed time or place, 
but had a special day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- 
pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of 
commissioners in cases of this kind ; such were the Duumviri perduellionis or 
Qusesitures. — The ordinary public trials were also called quaesliones perpetuse, 
and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state 
offences. In these the Prsetor presided (cf. § 243), by whom assistant judges 
(judices assessores) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from 
the knights, and at last from all conditions-. The judges were divided into 
several decurias, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot 
for each trial. Under the emperors, the judges were appointed by them. 

1 u. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of established usages 
were observed. The plaintiff {actor, accusator) commonly spoke against the defendant 
(reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or 
in writing, and judgment was pronounced. The person acquitted could, when he had 
ground for it, bring his accuser to trial for slander (calumnia) ; the person condemned, 
on the other hand, was punished according to the law. 

2. Public trials of a capital kind were held before the Ccmitia Centuriata; such as 
involved only the question of some minor punishment, before the Comitia Tributa. 
In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he 
announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person of a certain crime ; doing 
this was expressed by the phrase dicere diem; the person named must procure bonds- 
men {vades, prcedes) or be kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the ma- 
gistrate made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each after one day in- 
tervening ; then a bill (rogalid), including the charge and the punishment proposed, 
was posted up for three market-days; on the third market-day, the accuser again 
repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (advocatus, patronvs) made a 
defence ; after which the Comitia was summoned, for a certain day, to decide the trial 
then by suffrages. 

On the judicial affairs oi the Romans, the fullest authority is C. Sigonius, de judiciis, in his Opera Omnia, cited § 260. vol. iii. ; 
also in 2d vol. of Grxvius, cited § 197.— Cf. Beaufort, Rcpublique Romaine. 2d vol.— Dunlop, Rom. Lit. vol. ii. p. 141, as cited P. V. 
t> 299. 8.— H. F. Salmon, De Judiciis et Pcenis Romanorum, in Sallengrr, vol. iii.— Walter, Geschichte des Rom. Rechls.— Gbttling, 
Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfassung.— Tigerstr'om, De Judicious apud Romanes. Berl. 1S26. " Valuable only for the collection 
of the original authorities." 

§ 262. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called petitio; the 
pi aintiff peliior, and the defendant, is unde petitur. The plaintiff could compel 
the other party to appear at court, not usually, however, without calling in some 
one as witness to the step (antestatio). If the defendant chose not to go, he 
must give security or bail (satisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter 
or object of his complaint (causa); if the defendant denied the thing charged, it 
led to a formal trial (actio). — There were two principal kinds of actions; viz. : 
actiones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of obligations ; and actiones 
in rem, which related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The 
proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vindicatio; of the former 
kind, condictio. All private trials belonged to the jurisdiction of the Praetor. 

1 u. The Preetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the restitution 
of property, were called recuperator es. Often for this purpose a hundred or a hundred 
and five were appointed from the different tribes, called centumvirale judicium. The 
judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, were put under oath. -Then the action 
was carried forward orally, and after examination, judgment was pronounced, and 
provision made for its execution. It may be important to distinguish judges pro- 
perly so called from arbitrators (abilri causarum), who made awards in cases which 
were not to be decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommo- 
dation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causes jidei bona et arbi- 
trarice. 

2u. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Campus 
Martius; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica 
(cf. P. I. § 61). 

§ 263. Among the principal penal offences, which demanded public trials, 
were the following : Crimen majestatis, or an offence against the dignity and 



260 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

security of the state and its magistrates ; perduellionis, high treason against the 
freedom of the people; peculatus, embezzling in any way the public property, 
sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records; ambitus, bribery or cor- 
ruption of the people to procure votes in an election; repetundarum, extortion, 
when a Preetor, Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, 
for which compensation was demanded ; vis publicse, public violence, including 
conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — There were vari- 
ous more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials; e. g. 
crimen inter sicarios, assassination; crimen veneficii, poison; parricidii, parri- 
cide; falsi, forgery; adulterii and plagii, adultery and man-stealing. 

§ 264. The punishments (pcense) inflicted on those found guilty were various. 
The following were the principal ; damnum, mulcta, fines, which at first never 
exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were 
increased; vincula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains upon 
the hands and feet; verbera, blows inflicted on the freebom with the rods of 
the Lictors (virgis), upon slaves with whips (Jlagellis); talio, satisfaction in 
kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye;infamia 
or ignominia, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the person incapa- 
ble of enjoying public offices; exilium, banishment, which was either voluntary 
or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of all honors. When the 
person was banished to no particular place, he was said to be interdictus ,• when 
banished to a certain place, rekgatus. The form termed deportatio was the 
most severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and 
desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; servitns, 
slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold ; and mors, death, in- 
flicted for heinous crimes. 

1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties ; as catena, chains ; boice, 
cords or thongs ; maniccB, manicles for the hands; pedicce, fetters for the feet ; nervus, 
iron shackles for the neck ; columbar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in 
which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands.: The confinement of crimi- 
nals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (cf. Acts 
xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner being fastened by a chain to the left wrist 
of the keeper; the prisoner was sometimes chained to two soldiers. — The ancient 
state-prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamcrtine Prison, is still pointed out to 
travelers. 

In our Plate XXXI., fig. A, is a cut showing a kind of stocks now used in the East, in which 
the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands; it may serve to illustrate 
the Roman stocks above named. — Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut representing one of the 
stories of the Mamertine Prison. The structure is under a small edifice called the Church of St. 
Joseph ; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called Tullianum, after ServiusTullius, who 
is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and 
defying the assaults of time; here Jugurtha, was stoned to death; and here, according to tra- 
dition, Paul and Peter were imprisoned; the dungeon presents a most appalling appearance. 

Cf. Eustace, Tour, &c. cited P. IV. § !90. l.—Fisk, Travels, &c. p. 300, as cited P. IV. § 186 6. 

2. The flagettum (/^ao-r^) was made of leathern thongs (lora) or twisted cords (funes) 
fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. The 
scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the ferula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hor. i. 
iii. 119. — The punishing of Roman citizens by the virga (pd0do s ) was prohibited by 
the Lex Porcia, many years before the time of Christ (cf. Acts xvi. 22). 

3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified {cruet 
affigere) ; others it was customary at first to hang {arbori suspendere), afterwards to 
behead (securi percutere), or to strangle in prison (strangulare), or to throw from the 
Tarpeian rock (de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast into the sea or a river (projicere in 
projluentem). The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of 
any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack 
{culeus, cf. Dionys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a dog 
and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals were 
not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased the 
privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain 'stairs 
(scalce) called gemonice or gemonii gradus ; down which they were dragged with a 
hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popular violence or civil war 
were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy (Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other 
modes of capital punishment were also practiced, especially under the emperors ; ad 
ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphithea- 
tre (bestiarii), or with each other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders 
were condemned to work in mines ; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SYSTEM OF LAWS. 261 

beasts to be devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those who embraced and 
would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid, 
which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it on fire ; 
thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burning 
Rome. 

§ 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefinite in the 
early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all 
cases according to their own judgment, or according to usage in similar 
instances. The abuses growing out of this state of things occasioned, accord- 
ing to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to 
Athens and Sparta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They 
returned B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (cf. § 248. 3) 
were appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 

1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then in 
twelve tables, and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopted and esta- 
blished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. V. § 561). — To these 
were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their 
authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed them ; e. g. Lex Atinia, Lex 
Furia, &c ; also from their contents ; e. g. Leges agrarice, frume.ntarice, &c. 

2 u. It was necessary that every law proposed for enactment should be previously 
posted up in public for seventeen days (per trinundinum), and then be submitted to 
the decision of the people in the Comitia Centuriata, that they might adopt it (legem 
jubere, accipere), or reject it (legem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished, 
they were said to abrogate it (legem abrogare). Laws thus adopted were engraved on 
brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however, their own ordi- 
nances had the force of laws, called Constitutiones principales, and including not only 
their formal edicts (edicla), but answers to petitions (rescripta, or epistolce), judicial 
decisions (decretu), and commands to officers (mandata). 

3. Originally laws were enacted by the people in the Comitia Curiata ; such laws 
were termed in general Leges CuriatGe. But afterwards the Comitia Curiata fell 
almost into disuse, and laws were enacted in the Comitia Centuriata, and thence were 
termed Leges Centuriata?. Enactments in the Comitia Tributa were termed Plebisci- 
ta (cf. § 259). Decrees of the Senate were called Senatus consulta (cf. § 257). Under 
the early emperors, these decrees were often based on proposals made by the empe- 
rors, called orationes principum, which were sometimes delivered orally, but generally 
were sent in written messages; in later times the orationes seem to have been syno- 
nymous with the constitutiones.' — The Roman law included the Leges, the Plebiscita, 
the Senatus consulta, and the Constitutiones Principales ; and also besides these, the 
various edicts forming the Jus honorarium j and likewise several early collections of 
laws and usages, viz. the Jus Papirianum, the Tabula? Duodecim, Jus Flavianum, 
and Jus JElianum, of which some account is given under the history of Roman Lite- 
rature (cf. P. V. § 561). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the sys- 
tem of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. The emperor 
Justinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order (cf. P. V. § 569). 

Respecting the Orationes principam, cf. Dirhsen, Ueber die Reden der Rom. Kaiser, in the Rheinisch Mus. fiir Jurispr. On 

the general subject of the Roman Law and Jurisprudence, we may refer to Heineccius, Antiquitatum Romanarum Jurisprudentiam 
illustrantium Syntagma. Argent. 1755. 8. — Savigny, System des heutigen Rom. Rechts. — Brinhmann, Institutions Juris Romani. 
—Ilxuo, Lehrbuch der Geschichte des Rom. Rechts. Berl. 1832. 8.— See also in this Manual, P. V. §§ 558-571. 

§ 266 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular policy of the 
Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain. A general scarcity, as 
in the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned the appointment of a special offi- 
cer to attend to the subject, called Prarfeclus Annona?, although the iEdiles had pre- 
viously been charged with this care, and it continued afterwards to be a duty of their 
office (cf. § 244). Augustus ordained, that two men should be annually elected to 
perform this duty, duumviri dividundo frumento. The annual contributions in grain, 
which were exacted of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a 
scarcity of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Quaestors (cf. § 246), were 
required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect, Egypt was the most 
productive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual voyage was 
made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined. 
The distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Rome 
from the earliest times. 

§ 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (serdrium), and after- 
wards to the imperial exchequer (fiscus), were the tributa, taxes imposed on 
the citizens according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute, 
and the vectigalia, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were 
three principal kinds or branches of the vectigalia; the porloriimi, duties on ex- 



262 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ports and imports, the person taking lease of which was called manceps portuum ,- 
decumx, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the scriptura, or pasture tax, 
paid for feeding cattle on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines, 
and on salt works, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were 
the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves (yicesima, a twentieth), on 
aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 

1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (locabantur sub hasta). Those who hired or 
farmed them were called publicani, the rent or hire paid being called publicum : they 
were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed property, and on taking the 
lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities (prcedes). Leases of the reve- 
nues of whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associ- 
ated (societas or corpus), who had in Rome a superintendent of the concern (magister 
societatis publicanorum), with a subordinate one in each province or region (promagis- 
ter), and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. 

The publicans so often mentioned in the New Testament were of the class of subaltern collectors above described, who were 
guil ty of great extortion in all the provinces. Zaccheus, described by Luke (xix. 2), as " chief among the publicans" (agx<-rtKiiivr]s), 
was probably a promagister. — Bouchard, Sur les Publicains, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxvii. 241. 

2. Salt-works (salince) are said to have been established first at Ostia, by Ancus Martius (Plin. 
Hist. Nat. xxxi. 41). In later times they were numerous in Italy, and in the provinces. Rock- 
salt (tiXe? opvKToi) was known to the ancients ; salt was also gathered from springs and lakes, 
where it was formed by a natural process; yet most of the salt used was made by artificial 
evaporation. of sea- water. The salt-works were usually public property, and were let by the 
government to the highest bidder. Among the most productive mines belonging to the Ro- 
mans, were the gold mines near Aquileia (Polyb. xxxiv. 10) ; the gold mines of Ictimuli near 
Vercelii, in which 25,000 men are said to have been employed (Plin. H. Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and the 
silver mines of Spain near Carthago Nova. In Dacia were gold mines and silver mines belong- 
ing to the Romans. Macedonia, Illyricum, Thrace, also Sardinia, and Africa, contained mines 
from which the Romans derived an income. Those in Dacia are said to have yielded in the time, 
of Nero fifty pounds of gold daily. 

On the mines of Dacia, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. Oct. 1841, p. 10.— On those of Spain, Rollin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. York, 
1835.— On the ancient mines generally, B. Caryophilus, De antiquis Auri, Argenti, Stanni, iEris, Ferri, Flumbique Fodinis. Vienn. 
1757. 4. • 

3. Besides the taxes above named, we may mention under the Vectigalia, the following : a 
tax on the value of things sold (centesima rerum venalium) ; a tax on liberti living in Italy (called 
octaves) ; a tax on the doors of houses (ostiarium), sometimes on the pillars (columnarium) ; a 
tax on bachelors (uxorium), first imposed A. D. 403. 

4. After the conquest of Macedonia, the revenue from the provinces became so great that the 
tributa previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. They were renewed again by 
Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caracalla bestowed the name and privilege of Ro- 
man citizens on all free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these 
taxes ; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects. 

5. Respecting the amount of income, to the Roman treasury at different periods not much is 
known (cf. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 17). The annual revenue is said to have been fifty millions 
of drachms before the time of Pompey, and to have been by him increased to eighty-five mil- 
lions (Pint. Pomp. 45). In later times vast sums must have been required to meet the various 
expenses of the civil government, the army, the navy, the public buildings, the aqueducts, the 
great roads, and other works.— It does not appear that regular annual salaries were given to 
public officers until the time of Augustus ; but afterwards they were common. Alexander Se- 
verus is said to have established a salary (salarium) for rhetoricians, grammarians, physicians, 
haruspices, mathematicians, mechanicians, and architects. The term salarium was derived 
from sal : salt being one of the things essential in supporting human life. 

D. H. tiegewisch, Histor. Versuch ilber die Romischen Finanzen. Altona, 1804. 8.—R. Bosse, Grundztlge des Finanzwesens im 
Rom. Staate. Braunschweig, 1803-4. 2 Bde. 8.— Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii.—P. Burmann, Vectigalia Populi Romani. 
Leid. 1734. 4. 

§ 268*. In connection with the Civil Affairs of Rome, we may speak of the 
principal employments and regular pursuits which were publicly authorized or 
sanctioned. 

1. Under the heads of Teacher, Priest, Lawyer, and Physician, may be included 
whatever among the Romans corresponded to the learned professions of modern times. 
— Respecting the business of instruction, conducted by grammarians, rhetoricians, 
and philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other .parts of this work (cf. P. 
IV. W 123—128. P. V. ^§ 407 — 412, 416—422, 446— 455).— The established system of 
idolatry required a large number of priests of different grades ; a sufficient account has 
been given in former sections of their business (cf. % 207 — 219) and emoluments 

(% 219 b). The employment of the lawyer was highly honorable and profitable. 

The jurisconsult or the pleader, who could distinguish himself by his knowledge of 
Law or his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure to obtain honor and wealth; 
although exposed, of course, the orator especially, to suffer in the violence of party 
revolutions (cf. P. V. §§ 390—406, 558— 571).— The profession of medicine, at first not 
much encouraged, had great patronage from the time of Augustus (cf. P. V. §§ 543 — 
552). Some statements of Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxix. 5) show that the employment was 
very lucrative; a physician, named Quintus Stertinius, received from the emperor 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 2G3 

500,000 sesterces per annum, yet represented himself as making a sacrifice thereby, 
as he could have obtained 600,000 by private practice. 

We may here remark that a number of i-vrgical instruments were found in 1819, in a house in Pompeii ; among them were the 
probe (specillum, /i?jA??), the cautery (Kavrrjoiov), the forceps (vulsella), the catheter (Kader^o, x>iea fistula), different sorts of 
knives, &c— An account of them is given in KUhn, in the Opuscula Academ. Med. et Philolog. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. 

2 u. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in early times, when the 
spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of mer- 
chants, who were Roman citizens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the 
expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits 
were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and 
through agents not unfrequently engaged in them and indulged in speculations. They 
did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. The 
merchants at Rome were styled mercatores ; those abroad in the provinces, negolia- 
tores. There were also brokers and bankers (argentarii and mensarii), and contract- 
ors of various kinds, besides the publicani (mentioned in the preceding section), whose 
contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transactions. Yet Rome never 
acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in point of commerce. 

The argentarii were ordinary brokers ; they were divided into corporations (societales, corpora). 
The mensarii were public bankers, appointed by the state, who loaned money from the public 
treasury to such as could give security for it. Both classes had their offices in the buildings by 
the forum. 

On Commerce, &c. among the Romans, Gibbon, Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. ii. — The Hist, of Rom. Emp. (given in Lardner's Cab* 
Cyclopedia) bk. iii. ch. 9.— De Pastoret, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaines, &c. in the Mem. de VInstitut, C lasse aVHist, 
et Lit. Anc. vol. iii. p. 285 ; vol. v. p. 76 ; and vii. p. 125.— Ernesti, De negotiatoribus Rom. Lips. 1772. 8. 

3 u. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and arti- 
sans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired Roman citizenship. 
Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia), 
which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. Of this kind were the 
collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendrophororum, sagariorum, labulariorum, &c. The 
overseer of such a body was called prcefectus ; they had also their decuriones and ma- 
gistri, whose office was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, 
or for individual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. 

Respecting these corporations, see G. Pancirollus, De corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Graevius, cited § 197. 

4. Among the various arts and trades pursued, the following should be here noticed 
more particularly. 

(a) The making of glass (vitrum, va\os).— It has been a question of some interest how far the 
ancients understood the making of glass. Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 19. xxxvi. 26) states that the art 
originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass vessels were first made in 
Sidon. It was known, however, in Egypt, for pieces of blue glass have been found in the tombs at 
Thebes, and some of the mummies are decorated with glass. Lachrymatories and paterae of 
glass have been discovered in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. # 186. 1). The allusions 
and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Virg. Mr\. vii. 759. Hor. Od.i. xvii. 20. Sat. n. iii. 222) 
indicate an acquaintance with glass (vitrea) in^a state of at least considerable perfection. Colored 
glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf. P. IV. # 220. 2) in the time of Augustus, 
imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. IV. $ 210). The story related by 
Tacitus {Ann. v. 42) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredible, shows 
that glass-making had been introduced at Rome. Numerous vessels of glass, and even panes 
of glass in a window, have been found at Pompeii (cf. $ 325). The celebrated Portland Vase has 
lately been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. IV. $ 173); this was found in the tomb of Alexander 
Severns, in whose reign a special tax was laid, A. D. 220, upon the glass-makers of Rome, who 
were then so numerous, it is said, as to require the assignment of a particular quarter of the city 
for the place of their labors. 

See Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 88, as cited P. I. § Wl.—Boudet, Sur l'Art de la Verrerie, &c. in;the Description de 
I'Egijpte, vol. ix. p. 213.— Belzoni, cited P. IV. § 231. l.—Mazois, Ruines de Pompei. Par. 1830. 

(6) The making of earthenware (fictile, Kcp&fuov, uo-rp&Kivov) or the art of pottery (ars figli- 
na).— This was early known anions the Jews (Jerem. xviii. 3,4). The vessels found at Volaterree 
and other places (cf. P. IV. $ 173. 3) prove its existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks in 
Italy. There can be no doubt it was early introduced among the Romans. The wheel (rpox'H, 
rota figularis) of the potter (figvlus, Kcpa^evc) is a subject of allusion in Plautus (Kpid. iii. 2. 35). 
Molds (rvirot, forma;) were used to decorate the vessels with figures in bas-relief (cf. P. IV. 
$$ 158, 188) and for forming the images on the architectural appendages called ontefixa made of 
terra cotta (cf. P. IV. $$ 239, 241) ; some specimens of these molds have been found near Rome. 
According to Vitruvius the Romans made their water-pipes of potter's clay. They established 
potteries in England ; vestiges of which, it is said, are still discernible in some parts of the 
island, especially in Staffordshire. If their vasa murrkina were porcelain (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 4), 
the art must have reached a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that these 
vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from the earth in the eastern part of Asia. — The 
manufacture of bricks (lateres coctiles) was well understood. Bricks are found in very ancient 
Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. 

Lardntr's Cab. Cyclopedia, the vol. on Porcelain and Glass.— S. Parke*. Chemical Essays, &c. Lond. 1830. p. 304, 346. 

Notices nf Roman earthen vessels are found in W. Skerry, Description of the discoveries at Heraclea, translated, &c. Lond. 1750. 8. 
— Cf. Sercux d'dgincourt, Recueil de Fragmens. 

(c) The baking of bread (panificium, ars pistoria).—The bakers (pistores) at Rome formed, like 
persons of other trades, a collegium. No one had made baking a trade, it is said, until B. C 



264 ROMAN ANTIQXIITIES. 

173. In a bakehouse (pistrinum, or pistrilla) discovered at Pompeii, were found several loaves 
of bread apparently baked in molds (artoptce); they were flat and about eight inches in diame- 
ter. Before the invention of the mill (mola), corn was pounded in a sort of mortar (mortarinm) 
called pistum ; whence the name pistur, and pistrinum. Two varieties of the hand-mill (mola 
manuaria) were found in the ruins of a bakehouse at Pompeii ; grinding with this was done by 
slaves, chiefly females. The "cattle-mill" (mola asinaria, uv\os ovikos, cf. Mat.th. xviii. 6) was 
also used ; likewise the water-mill (mola aquaria, vdpa\iri)<;), having above the stones a hopper 
(infundibulum) from which the com fell down between them. In the later periods there appear 
to have been public mills turned by the water of the aqueducts. When Rome was besieged by 
the Goths, A. D. 536, and the aqueducts were intercepted, Eelisarius is said to have constructed 
floating mills upon the Tiber. 

Cf. yUrnvius, x. 5.—Ausonius, Poem. iii. 10.— Procopitis, De Bello Gothico, i. 15 (cf. P. V. § 257).— Monzez, Sur les meules de 
moulin, &c. as cited § 59.— F. L. Goetzius, De Molis et Pistrinis Veterum, and C. L. Hoheisel, De Molis Manualibus, &c, in Ugvli- 
nut, vol. xxix. as cited § 197. 1. 

(d) The business of the fuller (fullo, yvaQevs), the dresser of cloth and washer of clothes.— 
The fullers, like the bakers and other tradesmen, formed a collegium. A fuller's establishment 
was termed fullonica or fullonium; the mode of performing the work was sometimes a subject 
of attention from the censors (cf. Pliny, Hist. N. xxxv. 5). On the walls of a fullonica at Pom- 
peii were found paintings which serve to explain the way in which dresses were cleansed. It 
would seem that the Romans in the cities sent their clothes to the fuller, instead of having them 
washed at home. 

The paintings above mentioned are given in the Museo Borbonicn, cited P. IV. § 212. vol. iv.— Some of them in Gdl, Pompeiana, 
vol. ii. as cited P. IV. § 213. 2; also in Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 432.— Cf. Sh'ottgen, Antiquitates Trituras et Fulloniae. Traj. ad 
Rhen. 1727. 

(e) The art of dyeing (ars tinctoria, tinctura). — This seems to have been a subject of special 
regard in the time of the empire. Establishments for dyeing were supported in various places ; 
at Tarentum, e. g. celebrated for its woolen manufactures, there was an imperial dye-house 
(baphium, /3a<j>£iov); these establishments were under a superintendent (baphiis propositus) . The 
whole work of making the cloth appears to have been performed in them, both the spinning 
(lanificium) and the business of weaving (textrina). A dye much used was the purple obtained 
from the shell of the Murex. Dyers from various places resorted to Phoenicia to improve 
themselves in the art. 

See Jimeilhon, Sur la teinture des Anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 549; vol. iii. 
p. 357.— Cf. notice of the color of the toga, § 332. 2. 

§ 269 u. Agriculture was in much higher estimation than commerce or any of the 
trades ; and the fields of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war, 
were chiefly possessed by respectable Roman citizens. Many noble Romans lived 
upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and improvement of them a special 
study. ' The ornamenting of their estates proved, in the flourishing periods of the 
state, an important part of Roman luxury. 

1. The grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of various kinds; triticum was a 
common name ; far is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum, 
and oa.\s, avena, were also raised. Flax, linum, was an article cultivated considerably. 
Meadows, prata, were cultivated for mowing; they seem to have yielded two crops 

of hay, foe?ium. The breeding of cattle was an object of attention usually included 

under husbandry; chiefly, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats. Much care was also be- 
stowed on bees (apes). Trees, also, both forest, fruit and ornamental, received their 
share of attention. The Romans were acquainted with most of the various methods 
now practiced for propagating the different species- and varieties. — But the culture of 
the vine finally took the precedence of all other cultivation (cf. § 331 b). 

Respecting the attention paid by the Romans to agriculture as a science, and the care taken 
in defining the boundaries of lands by means of professional surveyors (agrimensores), see P. V. 
$ 483—489. cf. P. II. $ 91. 1. 

2. Among the agricultural instruments the plow, aratrum, ranks first; its chief 
parts were the temo, beam, to which the jugum or yoke for the oxen was attached: 
stiva, plow-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (manicula) of which the 
plowman took hold to direct the instrument; buris, a crooked piece of wood between 
the beam and plowshare ; dentale or dens, the piece of timber which was joined to 
the buris and received on its end the share ; vomer, the share ; aures, affixed to the 
buris, and answering to mold-boards to throw the earth back ; culler, the colter. The 
rallum was a staff used for cleaning the plow, or beating off" clods from it. In some 
plows wheels were attached ; but the plow most commonly used was more simple, 

having neither colter nor mold-boards. Other instruments were the ligo, spade ; ba- 

lillus, shovel; raslrum, rake ; sarculum, hoe or weeding-hook ; bide?is, a sort of hoe, 
with two hooked iron teeth ; occa and irpex, different kinds of harrows ; marra, a mat- 
tock or hoe for cutting out weeds; dolabra, a sort of adz ; securis, ax; falx, pruning- 

knife ; falx messoria and falcula, sickle. The implements for beating out grain 

were the perticce, a sort of flails; traha, a sort of sledge; tribula, a board or beam, 
set with stones or pieces of iron, with a great weight laid upon it, and drawn by yoked 
cattle. These were all used upon the threshing-floor, area, which was a round space, 
elevated in the center ; sometimes paved with stone, but commonly laid with clay 
carefully smoothed and hardened. Sometimes the threshing was done by merely 
driving oxen or horses over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and 
Jews. 



PLATE XXXII. 



y.-A4:M .d 



EL y »id ■" 




266 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

In Plate XXXII., fig. ii. exhibits the Roman plow ; T is the temo ; B, the sliva ; A, points to 
the aures on the buris ; D, to the dentale ; V, is the vomer ; C, the culler. In fig. iii. are seen 
forms of the Syrian plow, cf. $ 172. 3. — On the Roman plow, cf. Dickson, as cited P. V. $489. 3. 

Fig. 8, in Plate XXXII. is a cut showing varieties of the falx, pruning-knife, and sickle. 

Fig. 5 is from an Egyptian monument, and shows the use of the sickle in cutting wheat in the 

field. Fig. 7 is a Persian drag, for the purpose of threshing grain; a roller with teeth, fitted 

so as to be drawn by cattle over the grain ; it is taken from Sir R. K. Porter. — Fig. iv. is another 
instrument for the same purpose, taken from Niebuhr ; it has three wheels with iron teeth, or 
with serrated edges, drawn by cattle, the driver sitting on it. These figures may partially illus- 
trate the Roman traha and tribula. Ponledera, Antiquitatum Rusticarum, &c. Patav.1738. 

3. The carriages used for agricultural purposes were chiefly the plauslra or vehce, 
which had usually two wheels, sometimes four, and were drawn commonly by oxen, 
but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without spokes, called tym- 
pana. The body of these carriages (and indeed of any carriage) was termed capsum, 
and the draught-tree or beam, temo. The jugum was the yoke, fastened to the beam 
and also to the cattle by thongs, lora subjugia — The sarracum was a cart or wagon 
used in conveying wood, and the various products of the farm. — Pack-horses (caballi) 
were sometimes used for carrying burdens ; more frequently asses or mules; called,. 
clitellarii, from the packages (clitelice) on their backs. 

We may remark in this connection, that the Romans had various carriages for con- 
venience and amusement. — The chariot, currus, was the most common; always with 
two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses. Those with two wer.e 
termed bigce ; those with four, quadrigce ; in the races, the horses were always yoked 
abreast. — The carruca was a sort of private coach of the rich, sometimes of solid sil- 
ver, curiously carved. — The pilentum, was an easy soft vehicle with four wheels, 
used in conveying women to public games and rites. The carpentum was a carriage 
with two wheels and ah arched covering. The ihensa was a splendid carriage with 
four wheels and four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the put- 
vinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games (§ 233). The cisium was a vehicle 
with two wheels, drawn by three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a 
larger traveling carriage with four wheels, — The horses were guided and stimulated 
by the bit {frcenum) and reins (Jiabence) and whip (flagellum). Bells (tintinnabula) 
were sometimes attached to the necks of the chariot-horses in a string similar to those 
now used. 

Fig. 6, in our Plate XXXI. is an ancient biga, preserved in the Vatican at Rome ; it is covered 
with leather. Fig. 5 shows a triga. Fig. 4 is a quadriga, which very nearly corresponds to a 
representation on a medallion (nummus moduli maxiini) belonging to the Royal Cabinet at Paris, 
on which Augustus appears holding a standard with the eagle at its top, and driving four horses. 
Cf. Montfaucon, Sup. vol. i. p. 64. 

Conveyance was also made on horseback, in which case the spur (calcar, Ktvrpov, cf. Virg. 
iEn. xi. 714) was the stimulus. Saddles of some kind {ephippia, cQinmov) were used ; sometimes 
perhaps merely of cloth (vestis slragula) ; yet sometimes consisting, as is now supposed to be 
shown by some monuments', of a wooden frame, stuffed and covered with a soft material, and 
fastened by a girth (cingulum, zona). Stirrups (stajiia:') weVe also known 2 , in later times at least. 
— It has been questioned whether the ancients used to shoe their horses. But the allusions of the 
classical writers seem to indicate clearly the fact that they dids, although, in the remains of 
ancient art the shoe is scarcely found, if ever, in the representations of ihe horse. Some have 
supposed that a plate of metal was attached to the hoof, not by nails, but by some other means. 

i See Ginzrot. Ueber Wtigen ("a valuable work on the history of Carriages"). 2 Cf. Archxvlogia, vol. viii. p. Ill, as cited 

P. IV. § 32. 5. 3 Archssologia, vol. iii. p. 35 —See the passage from Johnson, given in § 329. 3. Respecting bridles, bits, &c. 

cf. B. Clark, Chalinography. Lond. 1835. On the vehicles of the ancients, Scheffer, De Re Vehicul. 

§ 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important respecting 
the weights and circulating coins of the Romans. 

1. The principal Roman weight was the libra or pound. This was divided like the 
as, into twelve ounces; and the parts bore the same names with those of the as, men- 
tioned below. Various weights, both parts and multiples of the pound, were used in 
transacting business. They were often made of a black stone which some have 
called Lydius lapis. Scales (librce) and steelyards (Irutinas), like the modern, were 
employed in weighing. 

Various specimens of Roman weights are given by Montfaucon, vol. iii. p. 166, as cited <? 13. 
Some are rectangular solids; but most of them are in a degree spherical. — Fig. 7, in our Plate 
XXXI. is a steelyard found at Pompeii ; the original has an inscription, bearing a date which cor- 
responds to A. D. 77, and asserting that the instrument had been legally tested and proved in the 
Capitol. — Fig. 8 is the movable weight belonging to another steelyard found at the same place. 
— Roman steelyards and weights have been found also in England. Cf. Jlrchaologia, cited P IV. 
$ 32. 5. vol. ix. p. 131. 

2 u. Servius Tullius was the first who caused money to be coined (cf. P. IV. § 134), 
by stamping on brass the image of cattle (pecudes whence the term pecunia). Pre- 
viously, exchanges were made by barter, or by means of uncoined metal. The most 
common brass coin, the as, was originally a Roman pound in weight and was divided 
like that into twelve ounces (uncics). Two uncice made a sextans ; three, a quadrans ; 
four, a triens ; five, a quincunx ; six, a semis ; seven, seplunx ; eight, bes (bis triens) • 
nine, dodrans ; ten, decunx j and eleven, deunx. Afterwards the as was gradually 



P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. 267 

reduced {PUn. H. N. xxxiii. 3) to an ounce in quantity, and finally even to a half- 
ounce. Silver coin was first stamped B. C. 269; the most common coins were the 
Denarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as 
equal to ten pounds of brass, and marked X, or \, but after the reduction of the as 
to an ounce, B. C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. The proper value of it 
also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half the Denarius, and marked 
V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2^ 
asses (hence its name semis tertius), and marked LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbre- 
viated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sestertius passed 
for four asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummus. — Gold coin was first stamped 
at Rome B. C. 207; the most common coin was the Aureus or Solidus, equal in 
weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in value to twenty-five Denarii. 

J. Ward, De Asse et Fartibus ejus. Loud. 1719. 8. — Cardwell, Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Romans. 

3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where their mo- 
ney was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally to the image, or 
stamp, impressed on the coin and reminding one of the person or "thing represented. 
The mint was under the care of the Triumviri monetales ; the coins were examined 
by the Nummularii. The impression on the As or Assipondium was a Janus bifrons 
on one side and on the reverse the rostrum of a ship ; on the Semis and Quadrans 
(called also Sembella and Teruncius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver 
coins Denarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two 
or four horses, and on the other the head of Roma with a helmet ; but other devices 
were sometimes impressed (cf. P. IV. § 139. 2). — The value of the Denarius was 
about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments of Letronne, who carefully weighed 
1350 constilar denarii ; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore 
about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the republic was about 
10 to 1. 

E. Brertwood, De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum. Lond. 1614. 4.— Mongez, sur 1'art du Monnoyage chez les anciens 
et chez les moderns, &c. in the Mem. de VInstilut, C 1 a s s e cVHist. et Lit. Anc. vol. ix. p. 187. — Conger, B'dckh, as cited §174.— 
Hussey, as cited § 274. 2. 

4. The usual rate of interest (fuenus) was one as for the use of a hundred a month, 
or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was called usura 
centesima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the capital {caput or sors). 
Horace speaks (Sat. i. iii. 12) of a usurer, who took 60 per cent. For money invested 
in property exposed at sea (fcenus nauticum) the lender might demand any interest he 
liked while the vessel was out ; but after she reached harbor, only the usual rate of 
12 per cent. — When a person, borrowing money, pledged himself and property in the 
form of a sale, he was said to be nexus ; a person failing to discharge his debt within 
the legal term was by the law consigned to the creditor, and was then said to be 
addictus. 

See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, ed. Phil. 1835. vol. i. p. 4$1.—Hudtwalhtr, De foen. nautico Rom. Hamb. 1810. 4. 

§ 271 u. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 1000 
Sestertii they called Sestertium ; duo Sestertia, e. g. signifies the same as lis mille 
sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they used the wordSes- 
terlium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral adverb to the first number, 
ten, twenty, &c, and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind; e. g. Decies 
Sestertium signified 10,00,000 Sestertii ; Quadragies Sestertium signified 40,00,000, 
or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned by tale?its, in case of large sums. 
The talentum was equal to 60 libra or pounds. 

1. Kennet gives the following rule for interpreting the Latin expressions for sums of money: 
if a numeral agree, in case, number, and gender, with Sestertius, then it denotes precisely and 
simply so many sesterces ; if a numeral of another case be joined with the genitive plural, Ses- 
tertium, it denotes so many thousand sesterces ; if a numeral adverb be joined to the same, or be 
used alone, it denotes so many hundred thousand sesterces. 

We have on record some statements, from which we may form a notion of the Roman wealth 
and luxury. Crassus, for instance, is said to have possessed lands to the value of fit's millies, i. e. 
by the above rule, 2000X100,000=200,000,000 sesterces ; taking the value of the sesterce obtained 
as mentioned in the preceding section, we have 3.8X200,000,000-:-1000=$7,600,000, for the value 
of the land owned by Crassus ; he is said to have had, in slaves, buildings, furniture, and money, 
as much more. — Caligula laid out upon a single supper, centies, i. e. 100 X 100,000 sesterces = 
3.8 x 10,000,000-:- 1000=$380,000.— Cleopatra is said to have swallowed, at a feast with Antony, 
a pearl worth the same sum, centies HS.— Cicero is said to have had a table which cost centum 
sestertium, i. e. 100X1.000 sesterces=C""' 



Cf. Adam, Rom. Ant. (ed. Boyd) Edinb. 1834. p. 432. — Perhaps these sums would be much larger, if due allowance were made 
for the depreciation in the value of the precious metals. Cf. Say's Polit. Economy, bk. i. ch. xxi. sect. 7. 

2. In the Roman svstem of notation, seven letters of the alphabet were employed for express- 
ing numbers ; viz. I for 1, V for 5, X for 10, L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead 
of D, they sometimes used IC to signify 500 ; and instead of M, they also used X or CIC, or O O, 
to signify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn over a letter indicated that it was to be multiplied by 
1000; e. g. X stood for 10,000; T7, 50,000 ; ~C, 100,000.— Combinations of these letters usually sig- 
nified the sum of the numbers represented by the several letters separately ; e.g. VIII, 8; XV, 15; 



268 ROMAtt ANTIQUITIES. 

LX, 60; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X was placed before a letter representing a larger number, 
the combination expressed the difference ; e. g. IV, 4 ; XL, 40 ; XC, 90 ; and when to IC another 
C was annexed, it indicated a multiplication by 10; e. g. IC, 500; ICC, 5000; 1CCC, 50,000: in 
order to signify the same multiplication of CIC, a C was also prefixed as well as O annexed; 
e.g. CIO, 1000; CCIOO, 10,000; CCCIOOO, 100,000. For any multiple, however, of this last, 
100,000, the Romans did not employ letters; but prefixed to this expression a numeral adverb; 
as bis, to signify 200,000; ter, to signify 300,000; decies, to signify 10,00,000, &c. 

§ 272. It may be in place to speak here of the modes of acquiring or transferring pro- 
perty (res privates), or methods of gaining the ownership (dominium). The following 
may be named ; 1. Mancipatio, when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the 
transfer was attended with certain formalities used among Roman citizens only ; 2. Cessio 
injure, when a person transferred his effects to another before the Praetor, or ruler of 
a province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; the cessio extra jus was when an 
insolvent debtor gave up his property to his creditors ; 3. Usucapio, when one obtained a 
thing by having had it in possession and use (usus auctoritate) ; 4. Emptio sub corona, 
the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, with garlands 
(corona) on their heads ; 5. Audio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudicatio, which referred 
strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co-heirs or dividing stock among partners, 
or settling boundaries between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of pro- 
perty by sentence of a judge or arbiter ; 7. Donatio, when any thing was given to one 
for a present ; 8. Hcereditas, when property was received by inheritance ; and this was 
either by bequest, from a testator, who could name his heirs in a written will (teslamento) 
or in a declaration (viva voca) before witnesses ; or by law, which assigned the property of one 
dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest relatives on the father's side. 

§ 273 u. The public sale of property (audio, also called proscriptio) was very common 
among the Romans. In the place were such sale was held, a spear was set up, whence 
the phrase sub hasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be 
sold (tabula proscriptions, tabula audionaria) was previously suspended upon a pillar in 
some public place. Permission for such sales must be obtained of the city Prsetor. The 
superintendent of the sales was termed magister auctionum: in cases where the sale 
was to meet the demands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, and was generally 
the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of confiscated goods 
was termed sedio; the money arising therefrom went to the public treasury. 

Various distinctions were made of things constituting'property. One, of early origin, and con- 
sidered important, was into Res Mancipi and Res Nee Mancipi; the Mancipi were all 
such as could be transferred by the form called Mancipatio ; the Nee Mancipi were such as could 
not be thus transferred. Under the Res Mancipi were included farms within Italy (prcedia rustica, 
also urbana), and in any place which had obtained the jus Italicum ; also slaves ; and qvadrvpeds 
which were trained to work with back or neck; pearls (margaritce) ; and country praidial servi- 
tudes (or servitutes prmdiorum rusticorum) . By a prandial servitude was meant a right of making 
a particular use of the land of another, as the right of going through it on foot (servitus itineris); 
of driving a beast (actus) ; of driving a loaded carriage (via); of conducting water (aquceducUis) ; 
making lime (calcis coquendce), &c. 

On the subject of property among the Romans, see Unterholztn, Ueber die verschiedenen Arten des Eigenthums, &c. in the Rhein. 
Mus. — Dirksen, Ueber die gesetzlichen Beschrankungen des Eigenthums, in the Zeitschrift, vol. ii. — Bynkershoek, Opusculum de 
Rebus Mancipi et Nee Mancipi. — Savigny, Das Recht der Besitze's. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. under Dominium, Mancipatio, Prx- 
dium, Servitus, Sic. On the form in auctions, /. Rahirius, De Hastarum et Auctionum Origine, in Grxvius, vol. iii. 

§ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity should be explained here. 

1m. The measures of length and surface were the following; digitus, a finger's 
breath ; four of which made a palmus, or handbreadth ; and sixteen, a pes or foot ; 
5 fe^t were equal to a passus or pace; 125 of the latter formed a stadium, and 1 ,000 of 
them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. — In land-measures, the following were the most common 
denominations ; jugerum, what could be plowed in a day by one yoke (jitgo) of cattle, 
240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,800 square feet ; actus quadratus, equal to 
half the jugerum, being 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an 
eighth of the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet. 

The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 4 of 
which made a cyathus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulumwas the half of a quartarius, 
which was the half of a hemina; and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly equal to our 
pint. For dry things there was also the Modius, equal to 16 sextarii. In liquids the 
sextarius was a sixth of the congius; 4 congii made an urna; two urnae, an amphora; 
and 20 amphoras, a culeus. 

For a fuller view of the subject, the Tables presented in Plate XXXII a. may be consulted. 

2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of the Roman foot, which is 
important in learning the values of the several measures of length, extent, and capacity. 1. One 
means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these pre- 
served in the Capitoline Museum. 2. Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot- 
rules were bars of brass or iron of the length of a pes, designed for use in actual measurements. 
3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances between the 
milestones on the Appian Way. 4. Attempts have been made to ascertain the Roman foot 
likewise from the congius, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at 
Rome, the other at Paris ; the solid contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of 
half a pes. From the same measure, it may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts 



PLATE XXXIIa. 



ROMAN 

I MONEYS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

,' The value in our denominations is given from 
Conger's Tables. 



Measures of Surface. 

1. Below the Versus. 



Pes Quadratus 

100 | Decempeda Quadratus 

400 | 4 I Sextula ~~ • 



480 | 4.8 | 1.2 J Actus Simplex 



2400 I 24 



.25 | Siciliquus 
5 I 4 I Unci; 



3600 1 36 | 9 | 7.5 | 6 | 1.5 | Clima 



10O00| 100 | 25 |20.83! 16.6 | 4.16 | 2.7 | Versus 



Poles, sq.ft 

00.9- 
. 94.23 

1 104 6 

1 180.0: 

2 20.9 
8 83.65 

12 125.48 

34 167.05 



2. Above the Versus. 

Acres, r. 



Versus • 

1.44 ! Actus Quadratus 



2.88 | 



5.76 | 4 | 2 ! 



2 | Jugerum (As) 

Heredium 
576 | 400 | 200 | 100 | Ceuturia - 

2304 I 1600 | 800 | 400 | 4 | Saltus 



poles, sq.ft. 

34 167.05 

9 229.67 

19 187.09 

'39 101.83 

17 109.7S 

29 166.91 



Subdivisions of the Jugerum and the Libra. 

The Uncia is a 12th pirt of the Libra and also of the Ju°trum; 
and ten intervening divisions have the same name. 



Moneys. 



Teruncius - 
2 Sembella 



. I „ I Assipondium ) 

4 | z | As, Libelia J " 

8 j 4 | 2 j Dupondius 

10 I 5 I 2.5 1 1.25 1 Sestertius 



20 | 10 | 5 | 2.5 | 2 J 9. 



I- I 



Victoriatus 
2 Denarius 



1000| 500 | 250 | 125 | 100 | 50 | 25 | £™ < 



Dolls, cts. m. 

00 3.8' 

• • 7.74 
- . 1 5.4S 

• 3 0.95 
• • 3 8.68 

• 7 7.38 

• 15 4.76 
'h 86 8.46 



Weights. 

1. Below the Siciliquus. 

(Troy Weight.) 
Dwts. grs. 

Siliqua 2.92 

3 | Obol us • 8.76 

6 | 2 j Scru pulum • 17.53 

12 | 4 j 2 1 Semis extula ... l n.06 

24 j 8 | 4 1 2 | Sextu la .... 2 22.13 
36 1 12 1 6 1 3 1 1.5 j Siciliquus - - 4 9.19 



Uncix 


Uncix 


2. Sextans 


5. Quincunx 


3. Quadrans 


6. Semis 


4. Trisns 


7 Sep'unx 



Uncix 

8. Bes 

9. Dodrans 
10. Dextrans 



Uncix 

11. Deunx 

12. Jugerum, 
and Libra. 



2. Above the Siciliquus. 

Lbs. oz. dwts. grs. 

Siciliquus 4 9. 19 

13 | Duella • • 5 20.26 

4 | 3 | Uncia .... , • 17 12.79 



48 I 36 j 12 1 Libra - 
4 800 1 3600 j 1200 1 100 | Centumpodium 



• 10 10 9.53 
87 7 19 17 06 



Measures of Capacity. 



For Liquids. 



Ligula .... 
4 I Cyat hus 
6 I 1.5 I Acetabulum - 
12 I 3 I 2 I Quartarius 



24 



4 I 2 I 



I 12 I 8 I 4 



2 I Sextarius 
2?8 I 72 I 48 I 24 I 12 I 6 I Congius 



152 288 I 192 | 96 | 48 | 24 1 4 | Urna 



2304| 5-6 j 384 I 192 I S6 [ 48 I 8 I 2 I Amphora 



Call. qls. pts. 
0.019 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0.475 
0.950 
1.704 
0.819 
l.i 



2. For Things Dry. 

Ligula 

4 | Cyathus 


Qts. 


• 


6 | 1.5 ! Acetabulum .... 


• 


12 | 3 | 2 | Quartarius - 

24 | 6 | 4 1 2 | Hemina - - . 


• 
• 


48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sextarius 


• 


384 | 96 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | Semimodius 


3 


768 | 192 I 128 | 64 1 32 | 16 | 2 | xModius 


7. 



pts. I 
0.019 



0.1 IS 
0.237 
0.475 
0.950 
1.606 
1.213 



639. Twenty Amphorae made a Culeus 



1. Below the Pes. 



Measures of Length. 

2. Above the Pes. 



Sextula - 
1.5 I Siciliquus - 
3 I 2 I Semiuncia 



4.5 I 3 1 1.5 I Digitu s - 
6 I 4 I 2 1 1.3 j Uncia 



18 I 12 I 6 I 4 I 3 I Palmus - 



72 I 48 ! 24 I 16 I 12 I 4 { Pes 



0.16 
0.24 
0.48 
0.72 
0.97 
2.91 
11.64 



Pes ( 11.64 inches =) - 
2-25J Palmipes .... 
1.5 I 1.2 j Cubitus 
2.5 I 2 j 1.6 j Pes Sestertius 



5 I 4 I 3.3 I 2 I Passus 



10 I 8 I 66 I 4 1 2 I Decempeda 
Actus 



120 I 96 j 



I 48 I 24 



5000 I 4000 |3333 j I 2000 | 1 000 [ 500 [ 41.6 j M illiare 



38 
1617 



270 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

to deduce the value of the Roman libra, as the congius is said to have held ten pounds of wine 
or water. 5. The actual measurement of ancient buildings now standing at Rome is a method 
which is thought to be most satisfactory. By these various methods the Roman foot is made 
nearly equal to 12 inches. 
Gassendi's experiment to ascertain the Libra from the Congius is related in Diss. J. appended to vol. iii. of GogueVs Origin of 

Laws. &c. Among the authorities on the Roman money, weights, and measures, the following may be named in addition to those 

cited § 270.— Kdstncr. Matthix, and IVurm, as cited § 174.— G. Budxus, De Asse et partibus ejus, libri v. Lugd. 1551. 8—/. F. 
Gronov. De Seslertiis. L, B. 1691.— R. Bevtrini, Syntagma de ponderibus et mensuris Rom. Leipz. 1714. 8.— The treatises of Pxtus 
and others in the 11th vol. of Grxvius, cited § 197.— G. Hooper, State of the Ancient Measures, the Attic, Roman, and Jewish, with 
an Appendix concerning the old English Money, &c. (published 1721). Also in his works. Oxf. 1757. fol.— J. Greaves, Description 
of the Roman Foot and Denarius.—/. Arbuthnot, Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. Lond. 1727. 4—B. Langwith, Observations on 
Dr. Arbuthnot's Dissertation on Coins, Weights, &c. Lond. 1754. 4.— Of later authors in Metrology, Lelronne and Wurm (cf. 
§ 174) are most eminent. Cf. Bouiilet's Dictionnaire Classique ; in which (as also in Conger's Essay) are good tables of the Greek 
and Roman weights and measures.— Cf. also Freret, Les mesures longuea des anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxiv. p< 432. — 
Gossetin, Systemes metriques lineares d'antiquite, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 44. — R. Hussey, 
Essay on the ancient Weights and Money, with an Appendix on the Roman and Greek Foot. Oxf. 1837. 8. 



III. AFFAIRS OF WAR. 

§ 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity pre-eminently war- 
like; and by an uninterrupted series of great military enterprises made a rapid 
and remarkable advancement in power and dominion. Hence an acquaintance 
with what pertains to their military antiquities must aid in forming a just idea 
of their character and the original sources of their greatness. 

1 u. This knowledge is to be drawn from their chief historians as the primary source ; 
particularly from the commentaries of Julius Ceesar, and the historical works of Livy 
and Tacitus ; to which we may add the Greek writers on Roman history, Polybius and 
Appian, on account of their constant reference to military affairs. Besides these sources, 
there are the Roman writers who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman 
art of war, in its various particulars ; viz. Hyginus, Frontinus, and Vegetius. 

2 u. It is from these sources that those who have formed treatises and manuals of 
Roman antiquities have derived their materials on this branch of the subject. 

J. Lipsius, de Militia Romana (a comment, on Polybius). Antv. 1606. 4.— C. de Aquino, Lexicon Militare. Romas, 1724. 2 vols, 
fol.— Nast mid Rosch, Rdmische Kriegsalterthumer, aus echten Quellen geschopft. Halle, 1782. S. A good manual on this branch 
of antiquities — The 10th vol. of Grxvius (cited § 197) consists of treatises by R. H. Sckelius and others, on the military affairs of the 
Romans. — Cf. also Roilin, on the Art military, in The History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients ; found in his Ancient His- 
tory. N. York, IS35. 2 vols. 8.— Duncan's Disc, on the Rom. Art of War, in his Transl. of Caesar, cited P. V. § 528. 7.— C. Guis- 
card, Memoires crit. et hist, sur plus, points d'antiquites militaires. Berlin, 1773. 4 vols. 8. Cf. § 42. — Le Beau, Memoirs on Roman 
Legion, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. in different vols, from 25th to 42d. — De Maizeroi, to complete the design of Le Beau, 
ir; same Mem. fyc. vol. xlii. — Htyne, on the Roman Lesion, &c. Cf. Class. Joum. xi. 169. — Gibbon, in his Rom. Emp. ch. i. 

§ 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system of the Ro- 
mans in the successive periods and revolutions of their history, the antiquary 
must, in treating of this subject, pay constant attention to the order of time. 
Of the Roman art of war in its earliest state, we have but imperfect accounts ; 
but we know that the warlike spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings, 
and gave no dubious intimations of their future career.— -In the division of the 
people into three tribes, made by Romulus, a thousand men for foot soldiers and 
a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, and thus originated the 
first Roman legion [containing therefore 3,000 foot soldiers, besides the 300 
horsemen]. The 300 horsemen, called celeres, and constituting in time of 
peace a bodyguard of the king, were disbanded by Numa, but reorganized by 
Tullus Hostilius, and increased by the addition of 300 noble Albani; the whole 
number of 600 was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus; and the body of horsemen 
at last comprised 2,400 men. 

There is not a perfect agreement in the accounts given respecting the number of men in the 
cavalry at different periods (cf. Livy, i. 30, 36; Plutarch, Romul. 13, 20; Cicero, De Republ. ii. 
20) ; and there is room for some doubt, whether the whole number at the close of the regal power 
and in the flourishing times of the republic should be stated as 24,00, or as 36,00, or as 54,00.— See 
Zumpt and Marquardt, as cited $ 256. 2. 

§ 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 and 45 were 
enrolled among the class of younger men, and liable to service; while those over 
45 were ranked among the elder men, excused from military duty. They were 
always received to service under a formal oath {sacr amentum). The regular 
time of service was 16 years for foot soldiers, and 10 for horsemen; it was not 
customary, however, to serve this number of years in succession, and whoever, 
at the age of 50, had not served the prescribed number of campaigns was still 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF THE ARMY. 271 

excused from the rest. Persons of no property {capite xensi) were not included 
in the rule of requisition as to service, because having nothing to lose, they 
were not supposed to possess sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted 
wars the time of service was sometimes extended four years longer, and under 
the emperors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial guard, 
who were required to serve but 16. As all the soldiers were Roman citizens 
and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high estimation; and their peculiar 
rights and privileges were termed jus militias. Freedmen could be admitted 
only into naval service. — In the earliest times the Roman order of battle re- 
sembled the Grecian phalanx. Subsequently it was a custom to form several 
platoons or divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted, 
which will be described below (§ 286). 

§ 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the army was 
usually commanded by one of the consuls. A consular army commonly con- 
sisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred horse, all native Romans. For 
two consuls a double number was requisite, 4 legions and 1,200 horse. The 
legion contained originally 3,000 foot-soldiers, but gradually increased to 6,000 
and higher. In the second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse ; 
and each legion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of course as 
many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the people, partly from the 
equites, partly from the plebeians. • 

1. The number of foot-soldiers in a legion appears to have varied much at different times. 
Cf. Livy, vii. 25 ; xxix. 24; xliv. 21 ; Polybius, iii. 12. 

2 u. In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were over six- 
and-forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their country, and to fill vacancies in 
the. city legions ; in such emergencies, freedmen and slaves were sometimes enlisted. 
Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm (tumultus) were called tumultarii or 
stibitarii; those of them enlisting voluntarily were called volones. 

3 u. Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, augurs, 
and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily weakness or 
defect. Remission of some part of the legal term of service was, however, often granted 
as a reward of bravery ; this was called vacatio honorata. 

§ 279. In the levying of the soldiers {delectus), the following were the usages 
most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a herald the time of a levy 
{diem edicebant) ; then every citizen, liable to service, must appear, on peril of 
his property and liberty, at the Campus Martius ; each consul elected for him- 
self two legions, assisted by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were 
taken from all the tribes, which were called successively and separately in an 
order decided by lot. Four men were selected at# time, of which the tribunes 
of each legion, in rotation, took {legerunt) one. Afterwards the oath of fidelity 
{sacr amentum) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, then by the Cen- 
turions and the Decuriones, and iastly by the common soldiers. Then the names 
of the latter class were placed in the roll of the legion, and under the emperors 
a mark was branded on the right hand, that they might be recognized, if they 
attempted desertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, was called 
conquisitio ,• the same thing among the allies was termed conscripiio. 

§ 280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to another place 
of assembling, in which they were formed into divisions and furnished with 
arms. The younger and feebler were placed among the light troops, velites ; 
the older and richer among the heavy-armed ; to which class belonged the hastati, 
principes, and triarii. 

1 u. The hastati were young men in the flower of life, named from the long spear 
used by them at first, and occupying the foremost line in battle; the principes were 
the men in full vigor of middle age, standing in the second line in battle ; the triarii 
the more advanced in age, veterans, constituting the third line in battle and laking thence 
their name. A legion, when it consisted of 3,000, had 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes, 
and 600 triarii. The last number always remained the same ; the two former were 
variously increased, and light-armed troops (velites or milites leves) were added ac- 
cording to pleasure. 

On the three ranks, hastati, &c, Le Beau, as cited § 275. Mem, tfC. vol. xxix. p. 325. 

2 u. On this occasion when the troops were formed into divisions, the colors or stand- 



272 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ards were brought forth from the Capitol and treasury, and committed to the proper 
officers (cf. § 282). 

§ 281. The subdivisions were originally manipuli or centurise, containing each 
a hundred men ; and the leader and captain of this number was called Cenlurio. 
— When the legion was divided into the three ranks of the hastati, principes, and 
triarii, each rank had at first fifteen maniples ; and the whole legion, of course, 
forty-five maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 regular 
privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The maniples of the hastati 
had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally among them; to the triarii also 
were allowed thirty companies of the same ; the principes had none. 

1 u. At another period the legion was divided into 30 maniples, and each of the three 
ranks into 10. The maniples of the triarii contained still the same number, 60 men in 
each, 600 in all ; those of the hastati and principes contained double the number, 120 
men in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks ; among these- were divided 1,200 light-armed 
soldiers; thus making a legion of 4,200. Each maniple was now divided into two cen- 
turies, sometimes called ordines. The tenth part of a legion, three maniples of each 
rank, and therefore including 300 men, was called a cohors, and from the number of 
men contained, tricennaria ; when the legion contained 4,200, the cohort had 420, and 
was termed quadrigenaria ; so also when larger, quingenaria and sexcenaria. 

On the cohort, Le Buau, as cited § 275. Mem, SfC. vol. xxxii. p. 279. 

2 u. Each maniple had now two centurions, distinguished as prior and posterior ; and 
every centurion had his assistant, called uragus, subcenturio, and optio. — The 300 horse- 
men belonging to a legion were divided into 10 turmcB, and each turma into 3 decurice, 
consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was called decurio. 

§282.' Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when in battle. 
The- chief standard was always in the first maniple of the triarii, which was 
styled primus pilus. The images and figures upon the Roman standards were 
various; but the principal standard, common to the whole legion, was a silver 
eagle on a staff or pole, sometimes holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an em- 
blem of the Roman power or success. Those of the infantry were 'usually 
termed signet; those of the cavalry, vexilla; the bearers, signiferi, or vexillarii. 

1. The vexillum, a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a bar fixed 
across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for foot-soldiers, especially 
for veterans, who were retained after their term of service ; these were by distinction 
called vexillarii, as they fought under this peculiar standard (sub vexillo) ; they were also 
called sicbsignani. On the flag were commonly seen the abbreviations for Senatus popu- 
lusque Eomanus, or the name of the emperor, in golden or purple letters.--The signum 
was originally a handful of hay, expressed by the word manipulus, and it was from this 
circumstance that a division of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards it was a spear 
or staff with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure of a hand above it, in 
allusion perhaps to the word manipulus ; having below the crosspiece a small shield, 
round or oval, sometimes two, bearing images of the gods or emperors. Augustus in- 
troduced an ensign formed by fixing a globe on the head of a spear or staff, denoting 
the dominion of the world. When Constantine embraced Christianity, he adopted a 
new imperial standard which was termed the Labarum ; it is described as a long pike 
with a transverse yard at the top, in the form of a cross; from this yard was hung a 
silken veil or banner, of purple color, richly embroidered and ornamented ; the portion 
of the standard above the cross-yard was wrought into a monogram for the word 
Xpia-Tos.— The standards and colors were regarded with superstitious veneration by all 
classes of the army. 

In our Plate XXXIII. eleven different forms of Roman standards are given, in the figures 
marked by the letter C— Fig. D is the hand of Mohammed, a sort of sacred standard or sign of the 
prophet's power among his followers; it is taken from Morier (cited P. V. $ 243. 3), who repre- 
sents it as carried in religious processions in Persia. Two forms of ancient Persian standards 
are also given, in the figures marked B.— The eight marked A are Egyptian.— Several Roman 
standards are seen also in Plate XXIX ; cf. $ 224. 

Respecting the Labarum, see L. Coleman, Antiquities of Chr. Church, Note prefixed to Explanation of Plates.— Cf. Class. Journ. 
vol. iv. p. 222. 

2. Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — " The Romans used 
only wind-music in their army ; the instruments which served for that purpose may be 
distinguished into the tubes, the cornua, the buccince, and the lilui. — 'The tuba is supposed 
to have been exactly like our trumpet, running on wider and wider in a direct line to 
the orifice. — The comua were bent almost round ; they owe their name and original 
to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in the ruder ages. — The buccince seem to 
have had the same rise, and may derive their name from bos and cano. It is hard to 
distinguish these from the cornua, unless they were something less and not quite so 



PLATE XXXII 




274 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

crooked. — The litui were a middle kind between the cornua and tubes, being almost 
straight, only a little turning in at the top, like the lituits or sacred rod of the augurs ; 
whence they borrowed their name. — These instruments being all made of brass, the 
players on them went under the name of ceneatores, besides the particular terms of 
tubicines, cornicines, buccinalores, &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number 
assigned to every manipulus and turma ; besides several of higher order, and common 
to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took their station by the ensign and 
colors of their particular company or troop ; the others stood near the chief eagle in a 
ring, hard by the general and prime officers ; and when the alarm was to be given, at 
the word of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common 
sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this clas- 
sicum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout at the first encounter, which in later 
ages they called barritus, from a German original." (Kennet.) 

A form of the Roman cornu is seen in Plate XXVI. fig. B ; of the lituus, probably, in fig. n. See Galand, La Trompette chez 

les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104. — Galand, De Tubae origine et usu apud Veteres, in Ugolinvs, vol. xxxii. as cited 
§ 197. 

§ 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed according to the class to which 
they belonged. The velites had a round shield (parma), about three feet in 
diameter, a spear for hurling (hasta velitaris), a helmet of ox-hide (cudo), or of 
the skin of a wild beast (galerus), and in later times a sword. — The hastati bore 
a large shield (scutum), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin 
boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short but stiff and pointed sword 
(gladius), on the right hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (pila), one 
longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet (galea), with a crest 
adorned with plumes (crista) ; greaves for the legs, plated with iron (ocrese), 
used in later times only for the right leg ; a coat of mail (lorica), formed of 
metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the 
breast to the loins, or a breastplate (thorax) merely. — The principes and triarii 
used weapons of the same kind; excepting that the triarii had longer spears-, 
called hasisz longse, in later times lancese, and long swords, called spathae, or 
when of smaller size, semi-spathse. — The shield was marked by the name of the 
soldier and the number of the legion and maniple to which he belonged.' Who- 
ever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. — The weapons 
of the cavalry were similar to the Grecian (cf. § 138) : a war cap (cassis), a 
coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword 
and dagger, which last was used only in close fight. 

The horsemen in fig. 1, of Plate XXX. have a small round shield. Cf. $ 235. 3. A sort of shield 
is also seen in fig. 2 of the same Plate ; which represents a Roman knight attacking a barbarian 
soldier ; from an antique gem. Both these figures show the horseman's spear. — The scutum and 
gladius of the soldier are seen in Plate XXXIII. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, taken from 
Trajan's Pillar (cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2). — The shield is likewise seen in fig. 2, which represents a 
legionary with the accouterments and baggage, which he was obliged always to carry in march- 
ing (cf. $ 298. 2).— The lorica or coat of mail may be seen in Plate XXII. fig. 5, in which the legs 
as well as the body are defended by mail; this is the figure given in Calmet to illustrate the 
armor of Goliath, the Philistine; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 
4-7. — In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends down behind to 
defend the neck as well as head ; the figure is drawn from Trajan's Column. In Plate XXX. 
fig. n, is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scale armor ; as is his horse also.— For 
other articles of armor, see Plates XVII. and XXII. Cf. $$ 45 and 139. 

On the Roman armor, see Meyrick, as cited § 139. — Also, Le Beau (as cited § 275) in the Mem. de VMad. S/-C. vol. xxxix. p. 437. 

§ 284. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery received no 
pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and wages (stipendium) 
were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. Each 
soldier had a monthly allowance (demensum) of about two bushels of wheat, 
and a stipend of three asses per day. The stipend was afterwards greater; 
Julius Caesar doubled it, and under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. 
The wages were sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as 
a reward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixed for the distri- 
bution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of his pay was called 
peculium castrense ; half of which was always deposited with the standards, 
until the term of service expired. 

1 u. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished them- 
selves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativa, on the other hand, were 
gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occasions, as e. g. in cases 
of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. . Among the rewards, 
golden and gilded crowns were particularly common ; as, the corona caslrensis or val- 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUNISHMENTS. 275 

Zam to him who first entered the enemy's entrenchments; corona muralis, to him 
who first scaled the enemy's walls ; and corona navalis, for seizing a vessel of the 
enemy in a sea-fight; also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms; as 
the corona civica, of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity 
at the hands of the enemy ; the corona obsidio?ialis, of grass, for delivering a besieged 
city; and the corona triumplialis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing general. 

The various crowns above named are exhibited in Plate XVI. Fig. 1 is the civica ; fig. 2, the 
castrensis ; 3, the obsidionalis ; 4, the muralis ; 5, the navalis ; 7, the triumplialis. — Fig. 6 is the 
radiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors. 

2. " There were smaller rewards (prcemia minora) of various kinds ; as a spear with- 
out any iron on it (liasta pura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end of a lance 
or spear (veosillum), of different colors, with or without embroidery ; trappings (phalerce), 
ornaments for horses, and for men ; golden chains (aurece torques), which went round 
the neck, whereas the phaleree hung down on the breast; bracelets {armilla), orna- 
ments for the arms ; cornicula, ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; calelloB 
or catenulce, chains composed of rings ; whereas the torques were twisted (tortce) like a 
rope ; fibula, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." {Adam). Another 
form of reward was an exemption from service (vacatio) by release before the legal 
term was .finished (cf. § 278. 3). At the expiration of the term of service, the soldiers 
received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was sometimes called emeriium ; 
those who had served their time out being also called emeriti. 

The twques is seen on the Dying Gladiator (cf. P. IV. § 186. 9).— See Archseologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. xsii. p. 285, on 
an ancient bronze bracelet. 

§ 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes ■were very 
severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neglect of watch, 
leaving a post assigned, or cowardly flight, was visited with the punishment 
called fustuarium, in which, on a signal from a tribune, the whole legion fell to 
beating the offender with sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his dis- 
grace was scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this 
punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and the rest 
were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead of wheat for their 
allowance. Often disgrace was inflicted in other ways, as by loss of pay 
(stipendio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when a soldier of the triarii was de- 
graded into the haslati. The tribunes could inflict punishments only after in- 
vestigation of the case; the general, on the other hand, could immediately and 
absolutely pronounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for 
wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrection and desertion. The mode of in- 
flicting death was not uniform. 

§ 286. Of the Roman order of battle (acies) a general idea may be given here ; 
a minute detail would belong rather to a system of tactics. The legions were 
commonly ranged in three lines, the foremost occupied by the hastati, the next 
by the principes, and the last by the triarii. Between each two maniples a 
space was left, so that the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces 
of the first, and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. 
These spaces were termed rtctse vise, and were as broad as the maniples them- 
selves. 

1 u. This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage both of stability 
and of being easily changed; it avoided all confusion and interruption, and was espe- 
cially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (§ 142), which it could easily penetrate 
and route. It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was often, in anti- 
cipation of attack, changed so as to close up the spaces. But in this form of arrange- 
ment the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and 
by means of their separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and 
defence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and the men in the maniples 
three feet from each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier had 
scarcely more than room for his shield. 

2. To the disposition of the soldiers in the three lines of hastati, principes, and triarii, 
as above described, some have applied the phrase triplex acies (cf. Sallust. Bell. Jug. 
49) ; others consider the phrase as sometimes at least meaning simply an arrangement 
in three lines; an arrangement in two lines being called acies duplex. Other methods 
of drawing up the army for battle were occasionally used. We mention here the 
cuneus, in which the army was arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and 
break the enemy's lines ; the globus, in which the troops were collected into a close, 
firm, round body, usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfex, in which the army 
took a form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in order to 



276 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

receive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge ; the serra, in which the lines 
were extended, and in making the engagement some parts of the front advanced before 
the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a little like the teelh of a saw. 

§ 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the light-armed 
troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line ; but after- 
wards they were stationed in the intervals between the maniples, behind them, 
or on the wings, and made attack in connection with the hastati. A considerable 
part of the light-armed were stationed behind the triarii, to support them. The 
attack commenced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from 
the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the hastati ad- 
vanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were 
not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was 
given for retreat; on which the light-armed and the hastati drew back through 
the intervals of the second line, and the principes advanced to the fight. In 
the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their 
right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields, 
and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards ; the line 
thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the principes were com- 
pelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the principes and the hastati 
being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks (com- 
pressis ordinibus) and all three in a body {uno continente agmine). This united 
attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. 

§ 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They 
were commonly called velites ; in early times, however, rorarii and accensi, 
sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and ferentariu They carried no shields, 
but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into 
fifteen companies {expediti manipuli, or expeditae cohortes), and besides these 
there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The 
light-armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the 
enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword. 

1 u. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, about 
forty being joined to each maniple.— -They were of three different classes, designated 
by their principal weapon ; jacidatores, who hurled the javelin ; sagUtarii, who shot the 
arrow ; and funditores, who cast, stones or balls with the sling. There were also 
afterwards tragularii and balistarii, who threw stones by the aid of machines. 

In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, is a Roman funditor ; fig. b, a Sagittarius. 

2 u. Those called antesignani were not the light-armed, but probably were the 
soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. — The position of the light-armed 
during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that most commonly they stood in 
three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their 
attacks through the intervals between the maniples. 

§ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their army, espe- 
cially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens en- 
joyed a high estimation and rank already noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular 
establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted 
chiefly of the noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case 
on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble 
youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ,- the same was true under the fol- 
lowing kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic, 
the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry 
of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken 
into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of 
later times served only among the Prmtorians, or the imperial bodyguard 
(cf. § 309). 

§ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions, 
while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed 
especially on the wing. — The forces, commonly called alee were different from 
the legionary cavalry; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners 
and employed to guard the flanks of the army. — The number of horsemen con- 
nected with a legion has already been named (cf. §§ 276, 278, 281) ; commonly 
300 ; sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. § 292) had the same 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 277 

number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater number of horsemen ; 
although the ratio was not always the same. 

\u. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turmcB, corresponding to the 
number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to the number of 
maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had 
three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma; three uragi 
(dvpayol) were under them. In how many lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for 
battle is not known. In an attack, the first line of turmce endeavored to break the 
ranks of the enemy ; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were 
arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 

2 u. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their 
heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in pro- 
tecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitering the enemy, collecting forage, occupy- 
ing remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the routed foe. Where the ground 
was uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on foot. 

On the Roman cavalry, Le Beau, as cited § 275, Mem. fyc vol. xxviii. — Zumpt, cited § 256. 2. 

§ 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet threefold, but the 
foot were ranged in a single line, the horse were placed in a second to support 
them. In the year of the city 500, B. C. 252, the threefold arrangement of the 
legion seems to have been adopted. The cohorts have already been mentioned 
(§ 281); these also had their particular arrangement, which probably was 
formed originally by uniting the maniples, a thing not common until later times, 
since in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was still 
practiced. Towards the end of the republic, the threefold division of the le- 
gionaries was abolished ; and the legion now consisted of ten cohorts, each of 
which contained 400 or 500 men. After the time of Ca?sar, the more frequent 
order of battle was to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of 
the two others. — Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more 
like the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was a single compact 
line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian phalanx was adopted, 
but it was renounced. 

§ 292. Of thelegions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that these con- 
sisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an early period, either 
of choice or after subjection, entered into treaty with the Romans, and bound 
themselves to furnish for the field as many foot-soldiers as the Romans, with 
more than the Roman proportion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied 
the two wings when drawn up in battle-array. 

1 u. A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied states, con- 
tained eight legions ; although the number of allies was not always exactly the same. 
When in process of time the allies (socii) were admitted to Roman citizenship, the dis- 
tinction made between them and the Romans ceased. 

2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different at dif- 
ferent times. "During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every 
year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet in cases of necessity we sometimes 
meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Augustus maintained a standing 
army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 legions." (Kemiett.) 

Respecting the military establishment of the emperors, see Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. i. — Cf. § 309. 

3. The forces of the allies were termed aloe, from the circumstance of being usually 
placed on the flanks. They were under command of officers appointed for the pur- 
pose, called prarfecti. A portion of the foot and horse of the allies, called extraordi- 
narii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, called ablecti, served him as a 
special guard. 

§ 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of attendants, 
and baggage and machines of war. Among the numerous attendants were the 
following; the fabri, mechanics, workers in wood and metal; lixse, sutlers, 
holding a sort of market ; chirurgi, field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed 
ten to a legion; metatores, whose business was to mark out and fix the ground 
for encampments ; frumentarii, who had the care of furnishing provisions ; 
librarii and scribse, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care 
of a quarter-master. — The proper baggage of the army (impedimenta) consisted 
partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (sarcinse), partly of weapons, 
military engines, stores, provisions, and the like, which were carried in wagons 

2 A 



278 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

and on beasts of burden. Each person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant 
(agasu) to carry his baggage. The servants and waiting boys of the legions 
were termed calories. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but 
in later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of proper 
soldiers. 

§ 294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the field or into 
the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed went in advance; then 
followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse ; then the persons needed to 
pitch and prepare the camp, to level the grounds and perform other necessary 
work ; then the baggage of the general (dux) and of his lieutenants (legati), 
guarded by horsemen ; then the general himself under his usual escort ; then 
124 horsemen ; after .which came the military tribunes and other officers. After 
these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, and last 
the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This seems to have been 
the usual order of march ; but it was of course changed and modified in different 
cases in reference to the nature of the ground, the country, and other circum- 
stances. The order in marching out of camp was also somewhat different. 
And in order to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions 
also were required to relieve each other in position. 

§ 295. Besides the arrangements for battle mentioned already (§ 286), some 
others adopted particularly in marching should be mentioned. The agmen 
quadratum was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that 
of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the enemy, 
or on a retreat; the agmen pilatum, or justum, was a close array in marching. 
Orbis signified not a circular form, but such a four-sided arrangement as pre- 
sented a front on every side. The testudo was also an arrangement of the sol- 
diers, in which they stood close together, raising their shields so as to form a 
compact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they 
approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at a certain 
distance. The turris was an oblong quadrangular form, with the end or narrow 
side presented to the foe; laterculus was the same, considered only in its 
breadth. 

§ 296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars the Grecian, 
but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied only for a short time 
during a march was called castra, and in the later ages, rnansio ; castra stativa 
signified a more permanent camp, in which the army remained for a length of 
time, e. g. over a winter, therefore termed castra hiberna, or through summer, 
castra asstiva. The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw, 
and rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. The 
highest and freest part of it was chosen for the head-quarters of the general. 
This was called the praeiorium, and occupied a space of four hundred feet 
square. Here the council of war was held. A particular spot in it was appro- 
priated for taking the auspices, augurale ; and another for the erection of the 
tribunal, whence the commander sometimes addressed the army. In this space 
were the tents of the contubernales of the general (the young Patricians who 
attended upon him as volunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train. 
Near the prsetorium were the tents of the officers and the bodyguards. The 
entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy. 

§ 297 1. On the right of the Prsetorium (e), was the Forum (v), an open space for a 
market, and for martial courts ; and on the left the Qumstorium (w), where the stores, 
money, arms, and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, equites ablecti 
et evocati (o, o.) were also stationed on each side of the Pr&lorium, and behind them 
the pedites ablecti et evocati (p, p). Next were the tents of the Tribunes (**) and of 
the Praefects (tt). Then was a passage, or free way, called principia (u), 100 feet 
wide, extending through the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d). 
The rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the center of 
this lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direction. 
On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the triarii (i) were 
cast ; then beyond these tents, on each side, was another passage 50 feet wide, and 
then the tents of the principes (k) and hastati (l) ; and after another similar passage 
beyond these on each side, the tents of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (iw) and infantry (n). 
These five passages were crossed at right angles, in the center, by another of the same 



PLATE XXXI V. 




280 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

width, termed Via quintana (t) because five maniples were encamped on each side 
of it. In each tent there were eleven men, which formed a contubernium, one of them 
having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 200 feet wide, 
which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and served also for defense 
in case of an attack from an enemy. 

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. The 
ditch or foss was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep ; the rampart three feet 
high ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart was formed 
of the earth thrown (agger) from the ditch, with sharp stakes (sudes) fixed therein. 
On each of the four sides was an opening or gate, porta, guarded by a whole cohort. 
These gates were called porta prcetoria (a), being near the head-quarters towards the 
enemy ; porta decumana (b), on the opposite side of the camp, called also queestoria, as 
in earlier times the quaestorium was near it ; porta principalis dexlra (d), and porta 
principalis sinistra (c), being near the principia. 

A plan of a consular camp is seen in Plate XXXIV. fig. P, as given in Boyd's ed. of Adam ; it 
is drawn from the description of Polybius (Hist. vi. 24). — The letters and signs included in pa- 
rentheses in the above description refer severally to the corresponding marks in the Plan. The 
letters Q, Q, in the Plan, designate the tents occupied by the extraordinary cavalry of the allies ; 
R R, by the extraordinary foot of the allies ; S S, by strangers and occasional allies. — In fig. R is 
a section of a. fossa, here given as twelve feet broad and nine deep; showing also the agger and 
sudes. j 

§ 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed vigilise ,- 
excubise also signifies properly night-watches, but is used in a more general 
sense ; statio was the name for each single post. Two tribunes had constantly 
the oversight of the whole camp, which the same two retained, at the longest, 
for two months. At their tents all the officers and leaders were required to 
assemble at daybreak and with them go to the general to receive his commands. 
The watchword (symbolum) was called tessera, from the four sides or corners 
of the little wooden block on which it was written. 

1 u. The watchword was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to the 
centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the tribunes to the 
centurions were called tesserarii. Short commands were often written on similar 
tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the army. Before the head- 
quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by night. The outworks of the 
camp were occupied by the light-armed. Every maniple was obliged to place four men 
upon guard, so that 240 men were always on the watch in a camp of two legions. The 
night was divided into four parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end 
of which the guards (vigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxilia- 
ries had also their guards and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the 
watch on duty, and make the formal round (circuit io vigilum) or visit the several posts 
or stations. 

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in various ex- 
ercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exercitus. These exercises included 
walking and running completely armed ; leaping, swimming, vaulting upon horses of 
wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carrying weights, attacking a wooden 
image of a man as an enemy, &c. — It was essential to the comfort of the soldier, that 
he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with perfect ease ; in common march- 
ing he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions 
and customary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. — 
The exercises were performed under the training of the campidoctores. 

3. The winter quarters (castra hiberna) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under the 
emperors particularly, were furnished with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses, 
workshops (fabrica), an infirmary (valetudinarium), &c. Many European towns are supposed 
to have had their origin in such establishments; in England, particularly those whose names 
end in Chester or cester. (jSdam). — Cf. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Britain. 

§ 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encircling it with 
troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case of populous cities, some- 
times double or triple. In the attacks upon the city they employed various 
methods, and engines of various sorts. 

1 u. The testudo before mentioned (% 295) was frequently used ; upon the shields 
thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walls 
they mounted by the help of scaling-ladders (scatoe). — The crates, hurdles, were a kind 
of basket-work of willow; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the 
hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack ; 
they were also employed by the besieged as a breastwork on their walls, and on 
marches they served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places. — Vinea were 
portable sheds or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. 281 

long. They were filled out and covered with wickerwork or hides, and served to pro- 
tect from the arrows of the enemy while the soldiers were undermining the walls. 

Fig. I, of Plate XXXIV. shows the use of the lestvdo by a body of soldiers approaching a wall 
according to the statement above. — Fig. 2 shows the manner of forming the crates, and the vinew. 

2u. For a similar purpose were the plutei, wooden shelters, covered with hides, and 
moved upon wheels or rollers. Under these the slingers and archers especially placed 
themselves, and sought to force the defenders from their walls, in order that the scaling- 
ladders might be the more easily and effectually applied. Of the same kind, yet 
stronger were the musculi ; and also the lestudines (wooden shelters to be distinguished 
from testudo before mentioned) ; these were most commonly used to protect the work- 
men in erecting a fortification, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some of these 
shelters they often covered the battering ram. 

Fig. 8, Plate XXXIV. is a pluteus, advancing against a wall. 

„3 u. The battering ram was a large beam employed to break in the walls of the 
besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was managed immediately by the 
hands of certain soldiers without protection, but was afterwards placed under the shel- 
ters just described, which covered the men who thrust it against the walls. Its name, 
aries, was derived from its front end, which was covered with iron in a form resembling 
a ram's head. Sometimes it was composed of several pieces united, and so large that 
125 men were required to work it. 

The falces murales and asseres falcati were beams with iron hooks, to break and 
tear down the upper breastwork on the walls ; they were managed by the aid of ropes. — 
Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use, were termed the 
grus and the corvus. — The lerebra was an instrument employed for opening a hole in 
the walls. 

In fig. 4, of Plate XXXIV. is the battering-ram in its simple form, suspended by ropes from a 
cross-beam fixed above two posts driven into the ground. In fig. 5, it is attached to a complete 
and substantial frame placed upon rollers. In fig. 10, it appears under a shelter as above men- 
tioned. — Fig. 9 shows the asser falcatus. 

4 u. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to construct mounds (ag~ 
geres) as high as the walls of the city, or higher. On these mounds were placed the 
military engines, also movable towers and other shelters of the soldiers. By means 
of boards, palisades, and wooden grapnels, they were made capable of sustaining such 
vast weights. On account of the great quantity of wood-work in them, the besieged 
generally strove to destroy them by fire, which was often applied by mining under 
ground. 

These towers (lurres) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet high, and of 
ten or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollers. From the upper 
stories were usually cast arrows, javelins, and stones ; from the middle, a bridge or 
passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls ; and in the lower one the battering 
ram was brought forward. When they reached the slope of the mound, they were 
taken to pieces by stories and reconstructed oh its summit. To protect them from 
fire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened with a 

solution of alum. A long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow, 

smeared with pitch and resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower, 
was called falarica, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which they 
were thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or bunches of tow 
attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy. 

Fig. 3, Plate XXXIV. is a specimen of the movable towers. 

5 u. One of the most common and largest engines was the catapulta, by which 
arrows, javelins, and particularly stones were hurled a great distance. Stakes, sharp- 
pointed and hardened in the fire (called aclides or sudes missiles) were also thrown from 
the catapultce. — In a siege there were usually a multitude of these machines. Their 
construction is not well understood ; we only know that ropes and cords or sinews 
were used in order to shoot the arrows and other weapons, which they threw with fatal 
efficacy. — Of a similar kind was the balista ; called also in later times onager, and 
designed chiefly for throwing the javelin. — For shooting arrows, sometimes poisoned, 
the Romans made use of an engine termed the scorpio, which could be managed by a 
single man. 

Fig. 6. of Plate XXXIV. is the scorpio.— Fig. 7 is the balista, but on a scale more reduced. 

§ 300. The modes of defense on the part of the besieged were various. 

1 u. They hurled rocks, often more than a hundred pounds in weight, upon the be- 
siegers, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil, and endeavored to thrust down the 
scaling-ladder by means of iron hooks, and to kill, force back, or pull up to themselves 
the soldiers attempting to mount. The thrusts of the battering-ram they sought to 
baffle or weaken by hanging sacks before it, and in various other ways, and even to 
seize and draw it up bv their ropes and springs. They likewise cast burning torches 
36 2 a 2 



282 R03IAN ANTIQUITIES. 

upon the wooden engines of the besiegers, and in other ways attempted to set them 
on fire. 

2. " Where they apprehended a breach would be made, they reared new walls be- 
hind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed various methods to defend 
themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. (Liv. xlii. 63.) — But these, 
and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be best understood by reading the 
accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges, particularly of Syracuse by Marcellus (Liv. 
xxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Fulvius (Id. xxxviii. 4), of Alesia by Julius Caesar (de Bell. 
Gall, vii.), of Marseilles by his lieutenants (Cces. B. Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titus 
Vespasian (Joseph, de Bell. Jud.). 1 " 

§ 301. In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fight, and only in 
special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a permanent naval power, 
and always kept two fleets ready for sail, each manned with a legion, at the two 
harbors of Misenum and Ravenna. 

1 u. The warriors engaged in this service were called classiarii, and were enlisted in 
the same way as the legions of the land forces, but often taken from among them. 
The highest officers or commanders of the fleet (classis) were originally the Duumviri 
navales, afterwards a Consul or a Prastor, who was called prcefeclus classis, and sta- 
tioned in the most distinguished vessel (navis prcetoria) known by its flag (vexillum 
purpureum). Every other ship had a tribune or centurion for its particular com- 
mander (navarchus). Upon the upper deck (stega, constratum navis) stood the fight- 
ing men, 

2. Besides the navarchus or commander (called also magister navis), each ship had a 
pilot (gubemator, rector) and sometimes two, who had an assistant (proreta) to watch 
at the prow. Besides the classiarii or fighting-men (marines, called also epibatee), 
there were also the rowers (remiges) who were more or less numerous according to the 
size of the galley ; these were under a leader of director (hortalor, KeKevarrig, cf. § 158,) 
who with his voice and a little mallet (portisculus) guided their motions. 

3 u. War-towers were often placed on board the vessels, commonly two, one in the 
fort part, the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding a vessel of the enemy 
the ferrem manus, harpagones, and corvi were employed ; there were also other instru- 
ments of this sort ; combustible materials and the like were used in order to fire the 
ships of the enemy. 

§ 302 u. On engaging in a fight, the sails (vela) were usually furled, because they 
would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed by the rudder alone. The fleet 
was arranged by the commander in a sort of battle-array, and each vessel was as- 
signed its place, which it must maintain. A position as far as possible from land was 
usually desired. The larger vessels were usually placed in front, although the order 
of arrangement for naval combat was by no means uniform, but very various. The 
following forms are mentioned ; acies simplex, cuneata, lunata, falcata. Before the 
battle commenced, the omens were examined, sacrifices and vows were offered. Then 
upon all the ships was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for at- 
tack was given by a trumpet (classicum). The contest consisted partly in the rapid 
and violent rushing of the vessels against those of the enemy, for the purpose of 
piercing the hostile ships by means of the rostra, which were two strong beams at the 
prow of the galley, covered with iron at the points, and made fast to both sides of the 
keel ; partly in throwing darts, spears, grappling irons, and the like ; and partly in 
actual close combat. 

§ 303. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similar to those of a Grecian (% 155). 
The following were some of the terms ; prora, prow; puppis, stern; alveus, belly; 
statumina, ribs ; sentina, pump to draw off bilge-water (nautea) ; foramina, holes to 
put out the oars (remi) ; sedilia, transtra, seats of the rowers ; scalmus, the piece of 
wood to which the oar was tied by thongs (stroppi) ; gubernaculum, clavus, rudder ; 
two rudders were common ; insigne, the image at the prow ; tutela, the image at the 
stern ; apluslria, ornamental parts at the stern, sometimes at the prow, having a sort 
of staff with a streamer (tcenia); mains, mast; modius, the place in which the mast 
was fixed; antennas, brachia, yards for the sails (vela); comua, extremities of the 
yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the cornua. The rigging and tackling in general 
was called armamenta ; the ropes, rudentes, or funes ; the anchor, anchora ; sound- 
ing-lead, molybdis ; the ballast, saburra. 

§ 304. The Roman ships were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, the 
transport, and the ship of burden ; the first was propelled chiefly by oars; the second 
was often towed by ropes ; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were 
called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves onerarice ; 
they were commonly much inferior in size to modern trading vessels ; although some 
ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk 
in the time of Caligula, said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often termed 
naves longce, being longer than others ; naves turrita, from the towers constructed on 
them ; also rostratce, ceratce, from their beaks ; and particularly triremes, quadriremes. 



P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE TRIUMPH. 2S3 

&c, from the number of benches of rowers in them severally. As many as ten 
banks are mentioned; Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with sixteen banks; and Pto- 
lemy Philopator is said to have built one with forty banks. On the manner in which 
the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to § 156. 2. 

The naves Liburnicce were light, fast-sailing ships, made after the model of the 
galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — The phaseli, or 
7iaves actuaries, were a kind of yacht or small bark, with few oars, also designed for 
expedition. — The Camarce were of a peculiar construction, with two prows and rud- 
ders, one at each end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without 
turning; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. (Tac. 
Mor. Germ. 44.) 

Fig. 1, of Plate XXIII. is a specimen of the pkaselus.— Fig. 3 is the Liburnian galley.— Fig. 2 is 
the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shows the two rudders, attached on 
each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be raised out of water 
by lashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. Acts xxvii. 40. 

On the ships of the Romans, see Scheffer, Holwell, Le Roy. &c. as cited § 156. 2.—/. Vossiut, De Liburnicarum Constructione, in 

Grxvhis, vol. xii. It was stated, in 1835, that the port of Pompeii had been discovered, presenting vessels thrown upon their 

sides and covered by the volcanic matter. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing London Literary Gazette.) 

§ 305. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an 
important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, a pompous show, which 
was practiced even in the time of the kings. This honor, however, could be 
acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors; 
it was not awarded to Proconsuls. Yet in later times there were some excep- 
tions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not 
merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must have 
been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Praetor. The importance 
of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state, also came into 
consideration; and the general must have brought back his army to share with 
him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the vic- 
tory consisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a 
triumph. 

§ 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a victory, was a 
thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate 
in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the 
people, contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed 
by the people permitting the general to retain his command {imperium) in the 
city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required 
to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors 
of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumpha- 
lis Porcia, which prohibited a triumph unless at least five thousand of the enemy 
had fallen in battle. 

§ 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city until the day 
of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the 
city in the temple of Bellona. The expenses were usually defrayed from the 
public treasury, except in cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession 
without public authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The 
expenses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually 
distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to meet the 
triumphing general as far as the gate by which he entered the city. 

1 u. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line, ordi- 
narily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. They were followed by the trum- 
peters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacrifice, the spoils 
and booty taken from the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, pictures 
and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other pri- 
soners. Then came the conqueror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by tour 
white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was followed by 
his numerous train, consisting partly of his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn 
out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, through 
the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the 
spoils of the victory were consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were feasting, merri- 
ment, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The 
pomp, expense, and luxury attending them became constantly greater and greater, 
and the whole custom, on account of its frequent occurrence, and the great abuse of 
it by some of the emperors, was reduced at last to a common and contemptible affair. 



284 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

— The first triumph for a victory at sea (triwmphus navalis) was obtained by the Con- 
sul C. Duillius, after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 

2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Duillius, see P. IV. $ 133.— For a fuller 
view of a triumphal display, read riutarch's description of the triumph of Paulus iEmilius, after 
the capture of Perseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in hia 
Life by Vopiscus (cf. Gibbon, ch. xi). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constan- 
tinople, related by Procopius (cf. P. V. $ 257.— Gibbon, ch. xli.)— The total number of triumphs 
upon record down to that of Belisarius has been calculated as amounting to three hundred and 
fifty. 

It may be worthy of remark, that the phrase aurum coronarium had its origin in a custom con- 
nected with the triumph of a general ; the cities of the province where his victory was obtained, 
and those of other provinces also, used to send to him golden crowns, which were carried before 
him in the triumphal procession. Cn. Manlius had two hundred crowns carried before him in 
his triumph on aceount of his victories in Asia (Liv. xxxix. 7). At length it became customary 
to send, instead of the crown, a sum of money, which was called aurum coronarium (cf. Jiul. 
Gell. v. 6). 

§ 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, frequently bestowed 
on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not differ very much in form from 
the triumph ; the essential peculiarities were, that the general entered the city 
not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the 
prsetexla only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep 
(owe'.s). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was probably 
taken. The triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded to (§ 307), was less 
pompous. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph 
in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies 
were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, 
marched to the temple of Jupiter Laliaris, situated on the mount. 

§ 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes under the 
emperors. 

1 u. By Augustus a standing army was established ; he also created an officer 
called Prcefeclus prcetorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial 
bodyguard and the praetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Roman military ser- 
vice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support 
the authority of the emperors, not to promote the welfare of the country ; and to for- 
ward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of the soldiers were overlooked. 
From the same cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between 
the military and the other classes of citizens. 

The praetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into ten 
cohorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abo- 
lished, and 3500 Armenians were enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine 
scholcB, and commanded by the officer styled Magister officiorum. 

The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, dis- 
tributed among the provinces. Besides these he had ten prcetorian cohorts just named, 
six city cohorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which 
together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly 
increased, as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western 
comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy. 

At the commencement of the civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty 
legions, distributed as follows : three in Britannia; three in Hispania ; eight in Gallia, three of 
them being in the portion called Upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P. I. $ 17); 
two in Pannonia ; two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Mcesia; four in Syria, with 
three more in Judea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. I. $ 173). 

2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded 
the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect of the praetorian 
bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred 
only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The appointment was made or 
the commission conferred by the emperor's delivering a sword, to the person selected. 
Sometimes there were two praatorian praefects. Their power was at first only mili- 
tary and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them, 
and there was no appeal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius com- 
mitted this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praeto- 
rian cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates 
Viminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius sixteen praetorian cohorts were raised, and 
four to guard the city. Severus new-modeled the body and increased them to four 
times the ancient number. Constantine'the Great finally suppressed them and de- 
stroyed their camp. (Boyd's Adam, p. 123, 485). 

3. Important changes in the military system were made by Constantine. He ap- 
pointed two general commanders for the whole army, called Magistri militice ; one 
of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum ; the other, of the whole 
infantry, Magister peditum. 






P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FREEMEN AND SLAVES. 285 

Constantine did not abolish the title of Prmfectus prmtorio, when he suppressed the prfetorian 
cohorts, as above mentioned; but he changed the nature of the office, making it wholly a civil 
one, and dividing the care of the whole empire between four officers of this title ; Prmfectus prce- 
torio Orientis ; Prmfectus prmtorio per lllyricum ; Prmfectus prmtorio per Italia s ; Prmfectus prm- 
torio Oalliarum. The city of Rome also retained her special overseer Prmfeclus urbis Rovim ; 
and a similar officer, with greater authority, was appointed over Constantinople, which now 
became the seat of the empire, Prmfectus urbis Constyntinopolis. Under the four pra-fects were 
subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to particular dioceses, of which there were 
thirteen; one of them governed by the officer styled Count of the diocese of the E;ist {Comes 
diccceseos Orientis); another, consisting of Egypt, by an officer styled Prmfectus JEgypti ; and the 
other eleven by officers styled Vicarii or vice-pragfects. The dioceses were subdivided into a 
great number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed proconsules, 
covsulares, corrcctores, and prmsid.es. 

4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of Con- 
stantine. In the western, the military jurisdiction continued to be vested in two com- 
manders styled Magister equitum and Magister peditum. In the eastern, it was 
vested in the officers styled Magistri militum, and the number of them was five in the 
time of Theodosius the Great, who shortly before his death, A. D. 395, united the 
empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final 
overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of the military each 
had command of several squadrons (vexillalio?ies) of horse and several legions of sol- 
diers (palatines comitatenses) and several corps of auxiliaries (auxilia) ; two of them 
had also under their command a naval force, consisting of twelve distinct armaments 
or fleets, six being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military 
establishment, in addition to the forces already mentioned, a large body of troops de- 
signed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded 
by comites and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed Quces- 
tor sacri palatii. — The Masters -general of the West had under their command forces 
of a similar description, including also troops designated specially for the defence of 
the frontier. There was a Magister militum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Mas- 
ters-general. 

For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire under Constantine and later emperors, see Gibbon., ch. 
xvii.— For more minute details, Tableau Systematique des Empires d'Orient et d'Occident, &c. in 3d vol. of Scholl's Hist. Litt. 
Romaine.— The Notitia Orientis et Occidentis, as edited by Panciroli, or more recently by Booking, as cited P. V. § 571.— Cf. Manso, 
Leben Constant, d. Gr. Berl. 1817. 8. 



IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 

§ 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and social 
relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinc- 
tion which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes 
of freemen, the free-born ^ngenui), whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the 
free made (liberti) or freedmen who had been enfranchised from servitude, and 
who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of the 
latter class were termed libertini and their grandchildren ingenui, in early times ; 
at a later period the freedmen were called liberti only with reference to their for- 
mer master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, 
while their sons, if born after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. — 
The slaves were such by birth, vernse ; or by captivity in war; or by purchase, 
mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of 
their manumission, we will speak below (§ 322). 

On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, we may refer to d'Arnay de la vie 
privee des Romains. Lausanne, 1760. 12. (Consisting chiefly of treatises in the Memoires de VAcademi-e det Inscriptions.) Trans. 
Germ. Leipz. 1761. 8. Engl. Trans. Lond. 1764. 12.— Sketches of the Domestic Manners of the Romans. Reprinted, Phil. 1822. 12. 
Cf. A T . Am. Rev. xvi. 163. — Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. 303.— Montfaucon, Usages du 
siecle de Theodore le Grand, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xiii. p. 474.— Especially W. Becker, Gallus (Roman Life in the time of 
Augustus). 

§ 311. The Romans commonly had three names; the first was called the 
prsenomen, and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second 
was called the nomen, and was the name of the race or clan (gens) ; the third 
was the cognomen, which designated the family (familia) : thus, in Publius 
Cornelius Scipio ; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius 
the nomen pointing out the clan or gens to which the family belonged, and Pub- 
lius the prsenomen marking the particular man. The distinction between gens 
and familia was, that the former was more general, denoting a whole tribe or 
race; the latter more limited, confined to a single branch of it. — The daughter 
commonly received the name of the tribe or race, e. g. Cornelia, and retained it 



286 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

after her marriage. Sisters were distinguished by adding to this name the 
epithets major and minor, or prima, secunda, terlia, &c. 

1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the agnomen; 
this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be properly included 
under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, although they usually 
stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper name of the individual was 
frequently put last. 

2 u. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogeneous 
inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was increased by 
the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some of the 
most distinguished races; Fabia (gens), Junia, Anlonia, Julia, JEmilia, Pompeia, 
Tullia, Horatia, Oclavia, Valeria, Postliumia, Sulpicia, Claudia, Papiria, Cornelia, 
Idanlia, Sempronia, Hortensia. 

The names of families were often derived from the employment of an ancestor (cf. P. V. $ 483). t 
Names were also applied to individuals by way of ridicule ; that which was at first a mere nick- 
name, or sobriquet, became permanently attached to a person. 

See Mahudel, De 1'Autorite que les Sobriquets ou Surnoms burlesques peuvent avoir dans l'histoire, in the Mem. Acad. Insa: 

vol. xiv. p. 181. On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see ScholVs Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iv. p. 367, and references there 

given.— Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxi. — Boindin, Les noms des Romains, in the Mem. Mad. hiscr. i. 154.— Port 

Royal Latin Gram. bk. viii. ch. 1. — Cf. Castalio, De antiquis Puerorum Prsenominibus, in Grxvius, vol. ii. On the subject of the 

races (gentes), see Niehbuhr's Rome, i. 234.— Maiden's Hist, of Rome.— Gottling, as cited § 242. 

§ 312. The increase of these races was much promoted by marriages, in 
regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete separation between 
plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Marriage was held to be a duty of 
every Roman, and those who neglected it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. 
Citizens were forbidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially 
granted. Certain degrees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting 
marriage. Marriage took place at an early age among the Romans, the male 
being sometimes but fourteen and the female only in the twelfth year. 

1 u. The jus Quiritium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marrying a 
free-born woman. To freedmen this was prohibited, until the enactment of the 
Poppaean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators and their sons, 
were allowed to marry the daughters of freedmen. 

The Lex Papia Poppcea was an enlarging and enforcement of the Lex Julia " de maritandis ordi- 
nibus;" by it, whoever in the city had three children, in other parts of Italy four, and in the 
provinces five, was entitled to certain privileges; while certain disabilities were imposed on 
those who lived in celibacy. This subject is alluded to by Horace, Carm. Sbbc. vs. 20. 

2. A legal marriage was termed Justa, Nupticn, or Justum Matrimonium. The word 
connubium was used as a comprehensive term including all the conditions requisite to 
the contracting of a legal marriage. Generally it may be stated that there was con- 
nubium only between Roman citizens. There was no connubium between slaves, but 
only what was called contubemium. 

See Gierig, Excursus de Contuberniis Romanorum, in Lemairds Pliny, as cited P. V. § 470. 4. vol. 2d. p. 231. — JLyrer, Diss, de 
jure connubiorum apud Romanos. G<5tt. 1737. 

§ 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or betroth- 
ment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent (stipulatio) to the request 
{sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact and the ceremonies attending it 
were called sponsalia ,• it often took place many years before the marriage, even 
in the childhood of the parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always pre- 
sent at the betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by 
an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was necessary 
only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The mutual consent of 
the parties was the most essential. Friends and relations were usually present 
as witnesses ; the marriage contract was written and sealed {legitimac tabellas) ; 
the bride received from her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the 
whole ceremony was concluded with a feast. 

§ 314. In fixing the day of marriage, care was taken to select one of those 
esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transference of the bride from her father's 
power to the hands of the husband was called conventio in manum, and was 
accompanied by a religious ceremony, and a sort of consecration by a priest 
(confarreatio) . Marriages contracted in this form were the most solemn, and 
could not be dissolved so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes 
are mentioned ; one was by prescription (usus), the bride being taken home and 
living with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a purchase (co- 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. CHILDREN. 287 

emptio), in which each party gave to the other a portion of money, repeating 
certain words. 

§ 315 u. On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil or pe- 
culiar ornament of the head (luteum jlammeum), and a robe prepared for the occasion 
{tunica recta), which was bound around the waist with the marriage girdle {cingulum 
laneum). The sacrifice ordered on the marriage-day was a sheep of two years of age, 
presented especially to Juno as the goddess of marriage. 

The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took place in 
the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was taken, as it were 
forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not living, of the next 
near relative. She went with a distaff (colus) in her hand, and was careful to step 
over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it 
with the feet. She was supported by two youth, one on each side ; a third preceded 
her with a lighted torch or flambeau, and sometimes a fourth followed carrying in a 
covered vase (cumerum) the bride's utensils (nubentis utensilia) and also various toys 
{crepundia). She bound the door posts of her new residence with white woollen fil- 
lets and anointed them with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unxor). She then 
stepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bride- 
groom, who immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she de- 
livered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of 
purity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands of flowers, 
the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet {cazna nup- 
tialis) was held, which was accompanied with music and song. The husband after 
supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were con- 
ducted to the bed-chamber, by the door of which the nuptial hymns (epithalamia) 
were sung by young men and maids. The next day the bride presented a thank- 
offering to the gods, and the husband gave an evening entertainment (repotia), and 
distributed presents to the guests on their departure. 

§ 316. Divorces {divortia) were, especially in latter times, quite common. 
When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized in full formality, 
especially with the confarreatio just described, particular solemnities were requi- 
site for a divorce, and these were called diffarreatio. In case of a less formal 
marriage contract, the divorce was called remancipatio or usurpatio. On 
account of the frequent abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law; and pro- 
perly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula with which one dismissed 
his wife was tuas res tibi haheto. Sometimes the separation took place before 
marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called repudium ; the customary 
formula was as follows : conditione tua non utor. If a woman was divorced 
without having been guilty of adultery, her portion or dowry was returned 
with her. 

The situation of the Roman woman after marriage was in some respects better than that of the 
Greek woman. The Roman matron presided over the household; she superintended the educa- 
tion of her children (cf. P. IV. $ 125); as being the mater familias, she shared in the honors paid 
to the husband. Yet, generally speaking, the condition of females among the Romans was simi- 
lar to their condition in Greece. The social elevation enjoyed by females in modern times is 
very justly ascribed in a great degree to Christianity. 

See § 181, and references there given.- 1 — On the regard to the sex as illustrated by the writings of Tibullus, Ovid, Seneca, &c. cf. 
Ramdohr, Venus Urania. Lips. 1798. 8. On the influence of Christianity, see Euchminsler's Sermons. — Cushing, Social Influ- 
ence of Christianity, in Bill. Repos. Sec. Series, vol. i. p. 195.— Cf. P. IV. § 83. 2. 

§ 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of children, that 
was the most remarkable which left it to the arbitrary will of the father whether 
to preserve his new-born child or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision 
of this point, the midwife always placed it on the ground ; if the father chose 
to preserve it, he raised it from the ground, and was said toller e ivfantem ,- this 
was an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his own. 
If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child on the ground, and thus 
expressed his wish to expose it (exponere) ; this exposing was an unnatural 
custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which children were left in the streets, 
particularly at the columna lactaria, and abandoned to their fate. Generally the 
power of the father was very great, but the mother had no share therein. This 
power extended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three 
times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate all his gains as 
his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of its rigor, by the regu- 
lation allowing the children to hold the inheritance left by their mothers. 

$ 318 u. The freeing of a son from the power of a father was effected by what was 



288 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son; the freedom con- 
sequent upon this was termed manumissio legitima per vindictam. The father and the 
son appeared together with the pretended purchaser, a friend of the first, and with a body 
of witnesses, before the tribunal of the praetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated 
sale and thrice repeated manumission was completed with certain established usages, 
sometimes by only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the 
purchaser was called pater fiduciarius ; in the first two, dominus. — The power of the 
father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or banishment 
of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman citizen (§ 260). By 
emancipation the son became his own master, and possessor of his own property, 
of which, however, he must give the father half as an acknowledgment for his 
freedom. 

§ 319. Another custom among- the Romans in respect to children was that of 
adoption (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced his own 
rights and claims, and committed them to another who received the child as 
his own. 

1 u. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. The 
formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always presupposed 
in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son was sold to the 
adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to the real father. There 
was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or testament {adoptio per testamentum), 
in order to preserve a family from extinction. In such case the person adopted re- 
ceived a considerable part of the estate left by the person adopting him, and bore his 
name after his death. 

2 t. That, which was called adrogatio or arrogatio, differed from adoption only in 
the formalities connected, and in the circumstance that the person adopted was pre- 
viously his own master (sui juris) and not in the power of his actual father. The 
adrogatio was not transacted, as was the adoptio, before the praetor, but before the as- 
sembled people, in the Comitia Curiata, and by the aid of the High-priest ; neither 
was it limited to individuals, but often included a whole family. Upon the consent of 
the people to the arrangement, the person or persons adopted into a family took a 
solemn oath, that they would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; 
this was called detestatio sacrorum, as the adopted person lost the peculiar rights and 
was freed from the peculiar duties {sacra gentilitia) of his former gens (cf. § 311), if 
different from the one into which he was now introduced. 

§ 320 u. By what was called legitimation, a natural [naturalis) or spurious {spurius) 
child was declared to be legitimate (legitimus), and instated in all the rights of such. 
This affected, however, the relation of the child only to the father, and not to other 
relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance 
an equal portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to the 
early Romans ; it came first into practice in the fifth century under Theodosius the 
second, and then scarcely at all in Rome itself, but in the municipal towns, where it 
was introduced to supply the want of the decuriones or members of the senate (cf, 
§ 260. 2). For, as this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was 
also very burdensome, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by 
them legitimated. 

§ 321. The education of the Roman youth is noticed particularly in treating 
of the Archaeology of Roman Literature (cf. P. IV. §§ 123-125). Here we 
only remark, that for a long time thera were no public schools, but the youth 
received the necessary instruction from private or family teachers (psedagogi). 
There were, however, those who in their houses gave instruction to a number of 
youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, were 
viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in education than the study 
of literature and science. They did not neglect, however, an early cultivation 
of the manners, and of noble feelings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and 
heroic courage. 

§ 322 t. The household of a Roman was collectively termed familia; but by 
this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which there was often a 
large number. Persons in opulent circumstances had them sometimes to the 
amount of several thousands. The Roman women of rank usually had a nu- 
merous body of servants of both sexes The slaves of a family were divided 

into different classes or decurise, according to their employments, and a particu- 
lar registry of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every 
morning. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as mere chat- 
tels, rather than persons. 






P. HI. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. 289 

" Slaves in Rome occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate superin- 
tending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious vice; 
from the foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest degradation to which 
woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the galleys, or labored 
on the public works. Some were lictors ; some were jailors. Executioners were 
slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich 
palace in the city ; and slaves performed all the drudgery of the farm. Nor was it 
unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself 
was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry-andrew was a slave. The physi- 
cian, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader 
and the stage-player; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and the smith; 
the weaver and the shoemaker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pan- 
tomime and the singer ; the ropedancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The 
armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agri- 
culture, manufacturing industry, or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of 
slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were 
retailers; slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves." 

The following is a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequently 
mentioned : — 1. Of those employed in the house. The servvs admissionalis received the persons 
who visited the master of the house, announced their names, and conducted them in ; the serci 
cubicularii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, often enjoying the particular confidence of 
the master; the tonsores and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the beard and hair of the 
masters ; the amanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagvostce were readers ; 
the vestiarii attended to the wardrobe; the balneatores waited upon the master at the bath; the 
medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians; the vutrilii and pcedagogi took care of 
the children. — A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon table at meals, and were 
designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the servus lectisterniat or, couch- 
spreader : structor, arranger of dishes ; carptor or scissor, carver ; diribitor, distributer ; prmgus- 
tator, taster ; pocillator, cup-bearer ; detersor, table-wiper, &c. — There were others performing 
another kind of house-service, e. g. the' servus ostiarius, door-keeper; atriensis, hall slave; dispen- 
sator, or arcarius, keeper of the stores; cellarius, pantry-keeper; pulmentarius, pottage-maker ; 
didciarius, confectioner ; tcediger, torch-bearer ; cunaria, cradle-rocker ; cosmeta, perfumer ; fla- 

bellifer, fan-carrier, &x. 2. Others were employed out of doors ; the servus insularis, who had 

the oversight over his master's buildings; the servus a pedibus, who went with errands; the 
leeticarii, who carried the sedan or litter, <fcc— A large number of slaves were kept at the manors 
or country-seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits; among these were the. villici, stewards cr 
superintendents; aratores, plowmen; runcatores, weed-pullers; occat ores, clod -breakers ; faeni- 
sectores, hay-cutters; vindemintores, vintagers ; jugurii, ox-drivers; opiliones, sheep-tenders; 
piscatores, fish-catchers; muliones, mule-drivers; gallinarii, hen-keepers, &c. 

For a full list, see Blair's State of Slavery among the Romans. Edinb. 1S33. 8- Cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. xv. 71. On the 

employment of slaves, see A. Popma, De Opens Servorum — L. Pignorius, De Servis et eorum apud Veteres ministeriis. Fatav. 
1656. 4— Moiigtz, sur les travaux publ. des Remains, in the Mem. de V Institut , C 1 asse de Lit. et Beaux Arts. i. 492. 

§ 323. The slave-trade formed among the Romans, as with most of the 
ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave merchants (yenaliiiarii) 
were always found attached to the Roman armies, and importers of slaves 
(mangones) often came to Rome from Greece and Asia. There were various 
laws regulating this traffic; which, however, were often left unexecuted, or 
were evaded by the arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves 
offered for sale, scaffolds (catastas) were erected in the market, and commonly 
small tablets or scrolls (tituli) were suspended from the necks of the slaves, 
stating their country, age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it was 
sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as pos- 
sessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as teachers, readers, 
accountants, musicians, and the like. 

One thousand denarii would equal (cf. $ 270. 3) about one hundred and fifty dollars. In the 
time of Horace (Sat. II. vii. 43) a fair price for an ordinary slave seems to have been about hilf 
that sum. In the time of Justinian the legal valuation of a common slave was twenty solidi, i. e. 
five hundred denarii, or about seventy-five dollars. But vastly higher prices are mentioned; 
e. 2. beautiful boys are said to have been sold for as much as two hundred thousand sesterces, 
or fifty thousand denarii (cf. Mart. iii. 6; viii. 13. Plin. H. N. vii. 39, 40). 

§ 324 7t. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most ancient 
mode seems to have been by will, manumissio per test amentum, on the decease of the 
master. There were two other modes; censu, and per vindiclam ; the former was 
when the slave, with the master's consent, was enrolled in the taxation list as a freed- 
man ; the latter was a formal and public enfranchisement before the praetor. In the 
last case, the master appeared with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the 
ceremony by striking him with a rod {vindicta) ; thus treating him as still his slave. 
Then a protector or defender (asserlor liberlatis) steps forward and requests the libe- 
ration of the slave, by saying h//?/c hominem liberum e?se aio, jure Quiritium ; upon 
which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e manu emit- 
'ebat), and aives up his right over him, with the words, hunc hominem liberum esse 
37 2 B 



290 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

volo. A declaration by the praetor, that the slave should be free, formed the conclu- 
sion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and 
received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. § 91. 5) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of 
liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person 
setting him free under thirty. 

Wo may here remark, that on the country farms there was a class of population termed coloni, 
who were not slaves, although sometimes termed servi terras. They were attached to the soil, 
and could not be separated from it; the land and the coloni could be sold together, but neither 
jnf them could be sold without the other. The coloni, like slaves, were liable to corporeal punish- 
ment ; but they had the right of connubium (cf. $ 312. 2), which slaves had not. The colonus paid 
a yearly rent for the land on which he lived. 

On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting article in the Biblical Repository and Quart. Observer, No. xx. Oct. 
1835. — Burigny, Roman Slaves and Freedmen, in the Mem. Acad, laser, vol. xxxv. p. 328, and xxxvii. p. 113.— Blair, cited § 322. 
—Becker's Gallus. 

§ 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casas)^ and 
during the first three centuries, even to the capture and plunder of the city by 
the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. IV. § 241). On its being rebuilt, 
they were larger and more respectable. As luxury increased, especially after 
the second Punic war, so the private dwellings (domus) became more and more 
costly and splendid, both within and without; although this was not universally 
the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extrava- 
gance in the building and ornamenting of houses. 

1 u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the fol- 
lowing ; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble ; the use of phengites 
{(peyyirm) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, which was com- 
monly employed for windows; mosaic work on the floors (pavimenta tesselata); and 
various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the 
walls, ceiling, and door-posts. 

2. The phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia 
in the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency. — The lapis specularis was found 
in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa; it could be split into thin leaves, like slate, 
not above five feet long each. Boyd remarks, quoting the French translation of Jldam, "It ap- 
pears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." Launay (cited P. IV. $ 195. 2), 
after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expresses in the following words 
his conclusion : "que le lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillete" appelle Selenite." 
(vol. i. p. 314). 

3. Windows made of this stone were termed specularia; it has been supposed that these were 
chiefly in the better houses 1 . — Horn is said to have been used by the Romans for the windows 
(corneum speculare); also paper and linen cloth. Originally the windows were mere openings 
(foramina, fenestras) ; sometimes covered with a sort of lattice (clathri); sometimes closed by 
means of shutters with two leaves (bifores fenestra;). It has not been generally supposed that 
glass (cf. 268. 4) was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for 
windows until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass windows (vitrea specula- 
ria), is said to be by Lactantius (De opificio Dei, 8) or by Jerome, in the fourth century^ ; although 
mirrors (specula) of glass were much earlier. But glass windows have been discovered^ in the 
buildings at Pompeii. "In the vaulted roof (of a room of the thermos or baths) is a window, two 
feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, 
two-fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the 
roof from looking into the bath: of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is 
an evident proof that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The learned seem to have 
been generally mistaken on the subject of glass-making among the ancients. The vast collection 
of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the 
ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." It has been suggested, that these 
vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from 
Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first made. Another room belonging to 
the same baths "was lighted by a window two feet six inches high and three feet wide, in the 
bronze frame of which were found set four very beautiful panes of glass fastened by small nuts 
and screws, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure." 

i /. M. Suarcsius, De Foraminibus lapidum in priscis jEdificiis, in Sallengre, as cited § 197. vol. i. 2 Beckmann, History of 

Inventions, cited P. IV. § 32. 1.— Cf. Vogtl, Geschichte der Erfindungen von der altesten bis zur neuesten Zeit. Leipz. 1841. 12. 
3 Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. p. 162. Cf. also § 268. 4. 

4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (laquearia) on the ceilings, were among the 
decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments were frequently of a character exceed- 
ingly unfavorable to purity of mind. 

On architectural ornaments, &c. cf. P. IV. § 239.— On the mosaic of the ancients, P. IV. §§ 167, 189, 220. 

5 u. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much bet- 
ter than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (1) The 
veslibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house-door and the street. From 
this, one entered through the door or gate (janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the 
atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in 
niches or cases (armaria). From this, one passed directly through into (3) the implu- 
v'mm ; called also compluvium and cavaidium, which was a court, commonly uncovered 
(subdivale), where the rain-water fell. In this was the proper dwelling-house, 'which 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. 291 

had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed 
from one apartment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the 
principal was (4) the triclinium or dining-room; the others were termed celloe, having 
distinctive names from their use ; as cella vinaria, coquinaria, penuaria, &c. Besides 
these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages ; colonnades, 
baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments were on the lower 
floor; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly occupied by tenants on 
lease (and called i?isulce), were higher and had more stories. 

As the population of Rome increased, the houses in the eity were raised to such altitudes as to occasion danger, and a maximum of 
height was established by law ; in the reign of Augustus it was enacted, that the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy 
feet from the ground.— Gibbon, vol. 3d. p. 216, ed. N. Y. 1822. 

6. The gate or door (janua) was sometimes made of iron or brass, often highly ornamented, 
and usually raised above the ground, so that steps were necessary to ascend to it. On festival 
occasions it was hung with green branches and garlands. It turned on hinges (cardites), and was 
secured by bars (obices, claustra), locks (sera), and keys (claves). Knockers (marculi, mallei) or 
bells (tintinnabula) were attached to it. 

Fig. a, of Plate XXXII. represents a key found at Pompeii. — Fig. b, of the same Plate, is a door-bolt, found also at Pompeii. 

In the utrhim. was anciently the kitchen (eulina). Here also the mistress of the house and 
servants carried on the spinning and weaving. In this was the family hearth (focus), near the 
door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf. P. II. $ 111) around it. The Roman houses, 
as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roof to let 
ofTthe smoke ; hence the epithet fumosce applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as 
much as possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil : yet it is said that 
chimneys have been found in the ruins of ancient buildings 1 . Portable hearths or furnaces 
(foculi), in which charcoal was burnt, were used for warming the different apartments; a sort 
of stove (caminus), in which wood was usually burnt, was also used, larger than the furnace or 
brasier, and fixed in one place. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace below, with 
pipes passing from it to the rooms*.— The atrium was sometimes divided, in later times, into dif- 
ferent parts separated by curtains. 

* BecherU Gallus, i. 102. Cf. ffor. Sat. I. v. 81.— Vitrvx*. vii. 3. 2 Beckmann, Hist, of Inventions. Cf. Plin. Ep. ii. 17.— 

Sen. Ep. 90. 

In the open court, or impluvium, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The apartments around 
it, excepting the dining room, were usually small and ill constructed, and properly called cells. 
Those designed for sleeping were termed "cubicula. The tablinum was the room for the family 
records or archives. The pinacotheca was the gallery for pictures. The solarium was a room on 
the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof was protected by large tiles (tegulce), and 
was generally of an angular form; the highest part was called fasligium, a. term also used to 
designate the whole roof. — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellarin\ 
which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases do not appear to 
have been considered of much consequence; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii. 

In Plate XXXII. fig. 1, is the plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Architecture as 
according to Vitruvius : "«1s the vestibulvm ; b, the atrium; c, the tablinum ; d, d, the alas; e, e, 
cellaj familiaricae; /, cavsedium ; g, vernal f-iclinium ; g, summer triclinium; g, winter tricli- 
nium; tit, baths; k k k, cubicula; ; «?., pinacotheca; n, bibliotheca ; o, peristyle; q, Cyzicene 
cecus ; r r, courts of the offices ; s, exedra; 1 1, gardens ; u, rooms for embroidery ; v v, sudato- 
ries." 

On the Roman house, cf. Wilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, cited P. IV. § 243. 4 — /. Minutolus, de Roman, domibus, in Sallengre, 
cited § 197.— Fr. M. Grapaldi de partibus .Edium liber. Parm. 1506. A.—Hiri, Geschichte der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4— 
Mazois, Ruines de Pompei. — Merrovir, Le Palais de Scaurus, ou Description d'une Maison Roniaine. Par. 1822. 8. — Smith, Diet, 
of Antiquities, p. 494. 

7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs (selloe), tables (mensos), 
couches (lecti), lamps (lucernes), &c. ; besides the numerous utensils for culinary 
purposes (cf. *j> 329. 3), and articles pertaining to the bathing-room and the toilet (cf. 
$ 338). 

Several varieties of tables are mentioned; as the cilliba, a round table with three legs; the 
monopodium ; the sigma or mensa lunata, &c. (cf. $ 329. 2).— Chairs of different forms have been 
discovered in the excavations at Pompeii, and other varieties are represented in the fresco paint- 
ings. — Among the couches were those used at meals, accubita, or lecti tricliniares (cf. $ 329. 2); 
and the lecti cubiculares or beds for sleeping; the latter had costly frames, sometimes of metal, 
with feet (fulcra) sometimes of silver, bearing a matress or bed of feathers (culcita, torus), with 
rich coverings (vestes stragula, peripetasmata, peristromata conchyliata) . — A great number of 
ancient lamps have been found, particularly at Herculaneum and Pompeii; of various forms and 
sizes, and different materials, from the most common to the most costly; many of them, espe- 
cially those in bronze, are of the most beautiful workmanship. They were wrought into the 
most whimsical images and shapes ; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or sus- 
pended from the ceilings. 

Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXXII. at the bottom ; in Nos. 1 
and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch (lychnucus) ; in N is. 2 and 4, they are placed 
upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella.) called candelabrum. Fig. 
d is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. 

ff. H. Baber, Antique Vases, Lamps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1836. 4. containing one hundred and seventy plates engraved by 
H. Moses; with descriptions.— See also Montfmicon (as cited P. V. § 13), vol. v. p. 202.— Le Antichi d'Ercolano, cited P. IV. 
6 243. 2. one vol. of which treats particularly on this subject.— The Muteo Borbonico (cited P. IV. § 212), contains representation! 
of very tasteful ancient chain. 

§ 32G. The villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splendid usually 
than the houses within the city. A complete establishment of this kind included seve- 



292 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ral parts. 1. The villa urbana was the chief edifice, with its courts,' baths, porticos, 
and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. The villa rustica was the name applied 
to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward (villicus), and numerous slaves 
of the establishment ; and those for various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for 
hens; aviarium, for bees ; suile, for swine, &c. 3. The villa fructuaria was another 
part, including the structures designed for storing the various products of the farm; 
as wine, corn, oil, and-iruits; often comprehended under villa rusiica. 4. The tortus 
was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed : being planted 
with trees, shrubs, and flowers, which were often turned into fantastic shapes by 
slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts; adorned 
with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort of park, of many acres, 
chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriolrophium, in which was the fish- 
pond (piscina) and the oyster-bed (vivarium). 

Many of these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. Cicero 
had a beautiful one at Tusculum, besides several in other places further from the city (cf. Mid- 
dleton's Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, 
and Laurentum ; the Piscina Mir abilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows 
of arcades, under the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond of 
this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 128.) In his Tusculan villa he had a 
single painting, the Argonauts, by Cydias, for which he paid, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 
12), 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above $5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tibur, not 
so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (Anthon's Remarks in his ed. of 
Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to himself at Laurentum, 
of great extent and grandeur. (Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.) — But the villa of the empe- 
ror Adrian, near Tivoli, was probably the most magnificent ever erected; its buildings and 
plantations covered an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference; its ruins have 
survived to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient art. (Cf. 
P. IV. $$ 173, 188. — Stuart's Diet.) — Ruins, called the Villa of Lucullus, have been discovered at 
the extreme point of Pausilypus (cf. P.I. $42), in ground used for vineyards, two feet below the 
surface; the buildings are said to have been found in good order. (Oent. Mag. Ap. 1842.) — The 
excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the walls of the 
place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a lively description of it in Johnson's 
Philos. of Trav. p. 235, as cited P. IV. $ 190.) 

Rob. Castell, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated. Lond. 1728. fol.— Sulzer's Theorie, i. 305.— G. Grenius, De Rusticatione 

Romanorum, in Sallengre, cited § 197. vol. i. On remains of Roman villae discovered in England, Archxologia, (as cited P. IV. 

i 243. 3). vol. viii. p. 363. vol. xviii. p. 2C3, and xix. 176, with plans. 

§ 327. The manner of life among the Romans underwent many changes in 
the course of their history. In the early periods these were favorable to their 
morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted 
its influence on their feelings, and these affected their private life and manners, 
their pursuits, social character, and amusements. At first, and even down to 
the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterized by simplicity in 
thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifica- 
tion of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. From their 
primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced in refinement and urbanity, and 
ere long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted 
with the conveniences and pleasures of the people they conquered, especially 
the Greeks and Asiatics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in 
consequence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in 
private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, 
now appeared effeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings, 
luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments, 
followed of course. 

§ 328. It is not easy to decide what was certainly a uniform course of daily 
avocations, among a people presenting a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and 
manner of life. There was, however, a sort of regular routine in the succession 
of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respect-' 
able and orderly citizens. 

1 u. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or 
their own houses. In t<he morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed 
to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially clients upon their patrons. 
About the third hour (cf. § 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assem- 
blies were commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for plea- 
sure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public places. About the 
si;:th hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take 
a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, 
m visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ninth or tenth hour 
was the usual time for the evening meal. 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 293 

2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named, $ 326).— "The 
private houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at once how the 
people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open court of the house — while the 
masters assembled, and might be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of the city ! 
Such was the state of society among the ancients; and if we examine the cafes and other public 
places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, at the present 
day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect has not essentially changed. How the 
women and children contrived to pass their time at home, while their husbands and fathers were 
lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say ; but if we may 
judge by the figures and devices on their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, and 
walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narrow and darksome cells, the pruriency (I dare 
not use the proper term) of their minds was at least commensurate with the inactivity of their 
bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." 

See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. I) of the manner in which his friend Spurinna was accustomed to spend the day. 

Abbe Couture, La vie privee des Romains, as cited § 310. 

3. The eustomary time of day for bathing, both at the public thermes (cf. P. IV. $ 241 b) and the 
more private balnea, was between two o'clock and dusk. Between two and three o'clock was 
considered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed 
at dusk; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until five o'clock in the evening. The 
price paid for admission was a quadrans or quarter of an as; the charge for entrance was in- 
creased a hundred-fold after four o'clock. — Nero's baths were heated by twelve o'clock; and 
Severus allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the night, in summer. 
The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empire to Con- 
stantinople ; after which no new thermae were erected, and the old gradually fell into decay. A 
description of the buildings constructed for bathing is given under the topic of Architecture (cf, 
P. IV. $ 241 6); to which we must refer for an explanation of the names of rooms or apartments 
that occur in the following account of the customs connected with bathing.— "Those who went 
to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium, where they took off their clothes and committed them 
to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer (balneator). Thence 
they proceeded to the unctuarium, where they were anointed by other slaves {aliptaa). Thence 
they proceeded to the sphceristerium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From 
this room they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot-bath in the latter room they sat upon a 
bench or seat (pulvinus) below the surface of the water in the basin. Here they scraped them- 
selves with instruments called strigiles, usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation 
was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred 
that the bathers, after the use of the strisilis, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were 
washed from head to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over them. They were then 
dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle called gau- 
sape. On quitting the caldarium, they went to the tevidarium, and after some delay, thence into 
the frigidarium; but are supposed not generally to have hathed in these at the public thermse, 
but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to. 
the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed 

oils of the el&othesium, after which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed." It is 

worthy of remark, that the exercise of swimming was connected with the custom of bathing. 
" This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they 
wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that 
he neither knew how to read nor swim, a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, that a per- 
son knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gymnasia and 
palrestrse, were schools for swimming; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in. their pri- 
vate houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." 

Bell, as cited P. IV. § 241 b. — Jlmeilhon, sur l'exercise du nageur chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Jnscr. vol. xxxviii. p. II, 
and xl. p. 96. 

§ 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) was very- 
frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it ; and in the better 
times of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon were regarded as 
effeminate. The fifth hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, w 7 as the 
time assigned for it. 

The principal meal was held at evening (ccena), and for this, particularly, the 
guest-chambers or eating-halls (triclinia) were constructed, which in the palaces 
and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called, 
from the use made of them, coenatiunes ; and among the lower classes, ccenacula. 

1 u. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches, 
each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. Nine persons 
(§ 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the middle couch or sofa 
was called locus consularis. Often seven places only were prepared, the whole of the 
middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. 
Women were not accustomed to recline at table, but to sit. 

2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed at the 
head of the table was called medius leclus, while the remaining couch on the left was 
termed imus lectus. The post of honor on each was the central place, those who oc^ 
cupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus sum- 
mi lecli, primus medii lecti, and prinms imi lecti. The most honorable of these three 
places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, usually was the primus medii 
lecti. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch farthest from that called 
medius. As the guests all reclined on. the same (the left) arm, the bodies of those on 

2b2 



294 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the 
left from, the middle couch. — The couch-frames (spondee) and their supports (fulcra) 
were of wood, ivory, or sometimes metal ; sometimes they were veneered with tor- 
toise-shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing (tomentum) of wool, 
feathers or the like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth (stragula) often 
of rich embroidery and purple dye. — The tables (menses) were often highly orna- 
mented. The monopodium, was circular, with one foot ; chiefly used by the sick ; the 
tripes (Hor. Sat. i. in. 13) of the poorer people had three feet. The mensa lunata was 
a semicircular table, accommodating usually seven or eight persons, used under the 
emperors ; it was called sigma from its resemblance in form to the letter C ; the 
term stibadium designated the couch or sofa which surrounded it. 

In Plate XXXV. fig. 1, we have the ground plan of a summer triclinium in the small garden of 
the house of Sallust, found at Pompeii; and also a view of the couches and the table in the 
center. In this plan, A designates the summus lectus ; B, the medius ; C, the imus. The couches, 
in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushions and tapestry. The 
round table in the center was of marble. — In fig. 5, of the same Plate, also from Pompeii, we see 
a splendid lectus, with a cushion and richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar). 

3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels (mantilia) 
for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping 
the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food (cibum) there were 
various articles of furniture, as dishes (lances, patrince) and the like ; but nothing like 
our fork, it is supposed (cf. P. IV. § 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have 
shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been consi- 
dered as modern inventions. 

"The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy 
and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Pompeii, where they slept 
since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natu- 
ral, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost mira- 
culous preservation of these objects during so many centuries. We are astonished (though I 
know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their 
names on the loaves — that the cooks had pots, stew-pans, colanders, molds for Christmas-pies 
and twelfth cakes — that the aldermen and gormands stowed their wines at the greatest distance 
from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves for supplying mulled wines to their 
guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of ' doctor's stuff,' a box of pills remain- 
ing to this day, gilt, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's 
room displayed a terrific ' armament urn chirurgicum' of torturing instruments; among others, 
' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in the Strand — that the female toilets disclosed 
rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's foot to lay them gracefully on the pallid 
cheek— that the masters and mistresses had little bells to summon the slaves (for servants there 
were none), and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn carts 
and wheelbarrows from entering the streets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same 
time — that play-bills, quack advertisements, notices of sights, shows, &c, were pasted up at the 
corners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin — that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though 
at a lower price than 8s. Qd. — that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian 
who came within the vortex of the Pompeian gaming-table — that horses had bits in their mouths, 
stirrups at their sides, cruppers on their rumps, though the two latter are omitted in statues, for 
the benefit of antiquarian disquisitions — that windows were glazed when light was preferred to 
air, which was rarely the case— that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their howl- 
ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals — that the public houses had checkers painted on 
their walls, as at present— that the chimist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pine- 
apple, symbolical of prudence defeating death — that the Pompeian ladies employed male accouch- 
eurs, who had all the implements of their art nearly similar to those of the modern men mid- 
wives — that the houses were numbered, and the names of the occupants painted on the walls — 
that, in the public tribunals, the magistrates protested to Heaven that they would decide consci- 
entiously, while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but truth — 
that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where 
officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their passions and 
propensities, their cares and theirenjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into flame !." {John- 
son, before cited.) 

Oft curiosities found at Pompeii, cf. Class. Journ. xv. p. 305. — Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vols. xxiv. xxv — Pompeii. 

— Museo Borbonico. For an interesting account of the luxurious manners of the later Roman nobles, Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of 

•Rom. Emp. chap. xxxi. 

§ 330. At the suppers of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The 
first was termed guslus or gustatio, designed to sharpen rather than to satisfy 
appetite; it consisted of eggs (ova), salad, radishes, and the like. With this 
they drank usually, not wine, but mead, or a mixture of honey. The second 
course formed the essential part of the meal, and the principal dish was called 
caput coenas. The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or vases fitted for 
the purpose (repositoria). The third course was the dessert (bellaria), consist- 
ing of choice fruits (mala), pastry, and confectionery. 

1. Hence the introduction of the phrase, ah ovo act mala, from the beginning to the end of the 
feast. Cf. Horace, Sat. I. iii. 6.— — An account of the fare provided for a social supper, is given 
by Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 

2. A great number of servants were employed about the evening meal in one way 






P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. BANQUETS. 295 

or another ; some of them have already been named (cf. § 322) ; e. g. the strucior, 
who arranged the tables ; the carptor, who divided the food, &c. In the times of 
Roman luxury, there was much demand for skilful cooks (coqui, archimagiri). 

3. It may be proper here to advert, to the Roman hospitality. The rignts of hospi- 
tality (jus hospilii) were highly respected ; the term hospes was applied both to the 
host and to the guest, and always indicated mutual obligations between them. 
These rights and obligations were sometimes created between persons residing at a 
distance and even in different countries, by an interchange of presents. The joining 
of right hands was practiced as a sort of pledge of this fellowship (arrha hospitalis) ; 
sometimes a sort of tally was used consisting of a piece of wood cut into two similar 
parts, of which each person kept one (tessera hospitalis)', some of the European 
cabinets have specimens of these tessera with the names of friends inscribed. — The 
Romans had a custom (called mulitatio) of inviting on the next day those whom they 
had met at another person's house. 

Fig. 4, in Plate XXXV., is a copy of a painting found at Herculaneum, which exhibits two 
persons joining hands, and one giving to the other the tessera. 

Cf. Class. Journ. ix. 229. x. 229. xviii. 75.— Fosbroke (as cited § 13), p. 638.-7; B. Camlius, De Tricliniis, Hospitalitate et Tes- 
Eeris Veteruni, in Gronooivt, vol. ix.— J. P. Tomasinus, De Tesseris Hospitalitatis. Amst. 1670. 12. also in Gronovius, vol. ix.— — 
On the general subject of Roman meals, &c. /. C. Bultngerns, De Conviviis, in Gronovius, vol. ix. — Cf. also §§ 166V168. 

§331a. In social banquets, held at evening-, it was customary to choose a 
master of the feast, rex or magister convivii or arbiter bibendi ,- he seems to have 
been chosen by a throw of dice (Hor. Od. n. vii. 25). To his direction every 
thing connected with the banquet was submitted, particularly all that related to 
drinking, and the social intercourse for the time. After the completion of the 
meal, the drinking was continued late in the night. It was customary to drink 
healths, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first 
place. — Not only after the meal, but also during it, between ihe different courses 
and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, especially playing with dice. 

1 u. There were two kinds of dice, tali and tessera. The former were oblong, 
with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which they might fall, 
and which were numbered successively one (u?iio), six (senio), three (temio), and four 
(quaternio). Four tali were used in playing ; the most fortunate throw, called Jactus 
Venereus or Venus, was when a different number was uppermost on each of the four, 
and the w r orst throw, called Cants, was when the same number was uppermost on all. 
The tessera had six sides, numbered like modern dice. Three only were used in play- 
ing ; and the best throw was three sixes, and the poorest three aces or ones. The vessel 
from which the dice were thrown, was called fritillus or turricula, a box in the form 
of a tower ; the board or table on which they were received, was termed forus, alveus, 
tabula lusoria. — Another game not so often played was called Duodena scripta, and 
was a kind of trick-track or backgammon. It was played with fifteen counters or 
stones (calculi) of different colors, upon a table marked with twelve lines. — In the 
general corruption of Roman manners the love of playing at games was carried to the 
highest extreme. 

Cf. Simon, Jeux de hazard, chez les Remains, iu the Mem. Acad, biscr. i. 120. 

2. In the time of the Republic, it was customary for the patron to invite all his cli- 
ents occasionally to a common supper in his halls ; this was called co?.na recta. Under 
the emperors, it became customary to give to the clients, instead of a supper, a por- 
tion of food to carry home in a small basket, sportula. At length a quantity of mo- 
ney was substituted instead of this, to the amount of about 100 quadrant es, or 25 
asses, which was also called sportula. This word was also employed to designate 
sums of money distributed by orators and others for the purpose of gaining favor. 

Cf. Juv. i. 95. 118.— Mart. iii. l.—De Mantour, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 161. 

§ 331 b. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially at their 
social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some remarks on the sub- 
ject. Scarcely any thing else seems to have been so important to the rich Roman in 
all his arrangements for domestic comfort, as to be well furnished with choice and 
approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great attention to the cultivation of the vine ; 
even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The soil of Campania was con- 
sidered as perhaps the most desirable in Italy, for vineyards. Many varieties of grape 
were cultivated : about fifty sorts are mentioned by Columella and Pliny ; no expense 
was spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was common to rear the 
vines by attaching them to certain trees (ai-busta), particularly the elm and poplar; 
and the vines and trees were thus said to be married ; the vines were allowed usually 
to reach the height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes a still greater, in the rich soils ; in 
soils less favorable, the usual height was only from 8 to 12 feet. — 2. The vintage or 
gaihering of the grapes was about the last of September, or in October. They were 
picked in osier baskets (fiscina corbes) and carried directly to the room for pressing 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

(torcularium), where they were first trodden {calcabantur) , and then subjected to the 
press ; sometimes in order to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a 
few days after gathering. The common wine-press (torcular) seems to have been 
simply an upright frame, in which was fixed a beam {prelum) loaded with weights, 
and having ropes attached so as to work it more easily. The juice (mustum) passed 
through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (Jacus), in which it remained in order to un- 
dergo fermentation about nine days, or was put into large vessels (dolia) for the same 
purpose. The juice which ran from the grapes without pressing (mustum lixivium) was 
usually preserved separately, and often with much pains to avoid its fermentation; 
one mode of doing which was to secure it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a 
space of a month or more. Sometimes the juice obtained by pressing was boiled 
down instead of being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and 
called defrutarium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one-half its original 
quantity, was termed defrutum ; the carenum was such as had been reduced only to 
two-thirds ; sapa was the name when reduced to one-third. — 3. Various means were 
employed for clarifying the fermented must ; eggs particularly were used for the pur- 
pose. Various methods were devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both 
of the fermented and the inspissated juice ; aromatic herbs and drugs of different 
kinds were introduced to effect the object. — In order to hasten the maturity of wines, 
to ripen and mellow them, they were often subjected to the action of artificial heat 
and smoke, by placing the vessels containing them in the flues of the furnaces, or in 
some room prepared for the purpose (fumarium), where the smoke for a time passed 
around them. These forced wines are said to have been in great request at Rome. 
It is probable that the process tended to give the wines a thicker consistency ; it is 
stated that they sometimes became consolidated to such a degree that it was neces- 
sary to dissolve them in hot water. — 4. The vessel most commonly used by the Ro- 
mans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, called also quadrantal ; the terms 
testa, cadus, and diota are applied to the same or a similar vessel. It was made of a 
sort of clay baked, and held about six gallons ; — generally of an elegant form, having 
a narrow neck with two handles, and tapering towards the bottom, so that they might 
easily be fixed in the ground or sand of the wine-cellar, and kept in an upright posi- 
tion. The amphora was commonly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and 
aromatic substances, and was covered also with a coating made of pitch and the ashes 
of the vine. When the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover or 
stopper was confined and made perfectly close by a coating of the same kind, or of 
plaster. Skins (utres), which were originally the only kind of vessel used for the pur- 
pose, seem also to have remained until later times. For the richer sorts of wine, 
glass vessels appear also to have been employed ; but probably of a much smaller size 
than the earthen amphora {Martial, Ep. ii. 40). For carrying wine from place to 
place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a frame 
and hoops, seem to have been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii ex- 
hibits a vessel of this kind occupying the whole of a wagon or car with four wheels 
and drawn by two horses. — 5. The better kinds of wine were usually valued more 
highly in proportion to their age. None of the more generous wines were reckoned 
fit for drinking before the fifth year, and the majority of them were kept for a much 
longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, was that of a 
middle age ; although the older might command a higher price. The opulent Ro- 
man, as has been mentioned, attached vast importance to his wine establishment. 
Hence to the house and villa of every such person was attached the wine-cellar (cella 
vivaria). This (called also apotheca, cf. Hor. Sat. n. v. 7) was commonly in part, if 
not wholly, under ground, and was frequently very spacious. Here the wine was 
kept, usually, in anaphoras, which were ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or 
less depth in the sand ; each one having a mark (nota) indicating the name of the Con- 
sul in office when the wine was made ; hence the phrase interior nota, signifying the 
oldest and choicest ; because such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be 
at the remote end of the cellar, or because, on account of these qualities, it was 
lodged in an inner cell or apartment. The villa of Diomedes (cf. $ 326) has a cellar very 
large, extending round and under the whole garden, and lighted and ventilated by 
port-holes from above; "some of the amphorae still stand as they were packed and 
labelled seventeen centuries ago." Among the amphora? found, some not many years 
since, at Leptis (cf. Beechy's travels), was one with the following inscription in Vermil- 
lion, l. cassio c. mario cos. forming three lines on the vessel. — 6. Of the Italian wines, 
the most celebrated were the Falernian and Massic (vinum Falernum, Massicum), 
which seem to have been the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinuessa ; 
and the vinum Setinum, the beverage of Augustus, produced, on the hills of Setia. 
Others in much repute were the vinum Ccecubum, Surrentinum, Calenum ; of a third 
rank were the Albanian and Sabinum. The Sicilian wines were rated generally after 
these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seemed to have placed the Lesbian, Chian, and 
Thasian, among the first ; cf. § 161. Different kinds of wine were used at the same 
banquet ; and sometimes the guests were treated with different sorts according to their 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DRINKING-CUPS. COSTUMES. 297 

rank. — 7. From the fact that the wines were so often inspissated, it was common to 
dilute them for actual use, among the Romans as well as among the Greeks ; for this 
purpose warm or hot water seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was 
made in a large vase called crater. From this it was poured or conveyed by a ladle 
(cyathus) into cups (pocula), of which there were almost countless varieties. 

Some of the names employed to designate varieties of the drinking-cup were the following; 
calic.es, phialw, scyphi, cymbia, batiolm. They were made of wood {farina pocula), or of earth 
(fictilia); of glass (vitrea), and of amber (succina); also of bronze, silver, and gold, with various 
ornaments (torenmata, vasa sculpta) : of gems or precious stones, and of the substance called 
murrha (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 4). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great skill in 
workmanship. 

In our Plate XXXV. are seen a number of the vessels connected with the ancient use of wine. 
Fig. a is a jar filled with grapes, copied from paintings on the walls of an edifice found at Pom- 
peii and called the Pantheon. — Fig. 6 is drawn from an Egyptian monument ; and shows a mode 
of obtaining the juice by treading on the grapes collected in a vat. — Fig. 2 is copied from the 
painting mentioned above as found at Pompeii; it shows a mode of carrying wine about for 
sale; a slave is filling an amphora from the leathern vessel in the carriage, and another slave 
holds a second amphora to be filled. — Figs, b, c, and d, are wine-vessels, from Egyptian monu- 
ments ; c very exactly resembling the Roman amphora; and b, a form still in actual use in 
Egypt for water.— Figs. e,f,g,i, represent glass vessels found at Pompeii ; A is probably a drink- 
ing-cup. — Figs, n and o are also drinking-vessels ; n is the drinking-horn, Kepas, pwov ; several 
specimens have been found at Pompeii ; o may illustrate the Greek crater ; cf. Boyd's Potter, 
p. 699. — Fig. 7 shows two elegant glass cups which seem to have been cut, or else cast in a mold. 
— Fig. 5 presents, in the hand of the Bacchanal, a cup of another form, probably the calix, kvXi^; 
wine-vessels also appear on the small table which stands by the splendid conch on which he 
reclines with a garland on his head and the thyrsus in the other hand ; a monument from Pom- 
peii. — Fig. 3 is a vessel of form like one of those seen on the table of the Bacchanal, given on a 
larger scale, and showing its ornaments ; it represents the patera, often used in libations. 

Cf. Poumall, on a Roman " drinking-cup wrought of solid crystal," Archxologia, cited P. IV. § 32. 5. vol. vii. p. 180. On the 

topics of the above section, Henderson's History of VVines, cited § 161. — E. Barry, On the Wines of the Ancients. Lond. 1775. 4. — 
A. Turnebus, De Vino ac ejus Usu et Abusu, in Gronovius, vol. ix.—d. Baccius, De Conviviis Veterum, in Gronovius, vol. ix. — 
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv.— Columella, xii.— B. Parsons, Anti-Bacchus; an Essay on Intoxicating Drinks. Repr. N. York, 1840. 12. 
p. 199 ss.— R. B. Grindrod, Bacchus ; an Essay on Intemperance. Repr. N. York, 1840. 12. p. 192, 245. The last two " works 
valuable as advocating perfect temperance." 

§ 332. The fashion of dress among the Romans underwent changes in differ- 
ent periods, but less in respect to form than the quality and expensiveness of 
the materials, and the ornaments. — The most general and peculiar garment of 
the Romans was the toga, a national characteristic, whence the Romans were 
termed Gens togata, and Togati, while the Greeks were termed Palliati. It was 
a loose robe or sort of cloak, extending from the neck to the feet, close below up 
to the breast, but open above the breast, and without sleeves. It was therefore 
not put on, properly speaking, but thrown over the body. It was commonly of 
wool, and white in color; black, toga pulla, being used only on funeral occa- 
sions. The toga worn in the house was less loose and ample {toga resf.ricta) ; 
that used in going out, commonly larger and flowing with many folds (fusa). 

1. Some of the priests and magistrates wore it bordered with purple (toga prcetexta) ; 
this was also worn by freeborn youth, who, at the age of seventeen, exchanged it for 
the toga virills or (because generally white) pura, which was assumed in a very formal 
manner before the Praetor, in the Forum. — The trabea is described as a toga orna- 
mented with purple horizontal stripes ; that worn by the augurs (cf. % 209) is said to 
have been of purple and saffron color. — The angular extremities of the toga were 
termed laci?iio3. 

2. A statue of one Marcus Tullius, by some supposed to be a descendant of the great Cicero, 
was found at Pompeii; "he is represented clothed in a toga prmtexta, the robe of office of the 
Roman magistrates; and, which adds value and singularity to the statue, this robe is entirely 
painted with a deep purple violet color. This seems to give reason for believing that the prre- 
texta, instead of being a garment with only a purple hem, as it is usually explained, was entirely 
dyed with this precious color; at least in the later times of the republic. The price of this pur- 
ple was enormous ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to have been worth 
one hundred denarii (about £3,. 4s. Id.) the pound; the red is valued by the same authority at 
one thousand denarii. It was obtained from the murex, a shell-fish found in various parts of the 
Mediterranean." Pompeii, p. 205. 

On the age for assuming the toga, cf. Dodwell, de setate tog. vir. sumendse, in his Prided. Acad, (cited P. V. § 542. 7.) p. 2-15.— On 
the color of the toga, ' Ameilhon, sur la teinture des anciens, as cited § 26S. 4. (e). 

§ 333. The garment which the Romans wore- under the robe, was the tunic 
{tunica). It was worn close to the body, without sleeves, and extending almost 
to the knees. It was entirely open, and fastened by means of a girdle above the 
hips. It was commonly, like the toga, white. In later times the tunic was 
worn with sleeves. — With slaves and the poorer classes of citizens generally, 
this was the only clothing, except the linen under-garment or shirt (indusium, 
subucula) which had small sleeves. The higher classes never appeared abroad 
38 



298 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

without the addition of the toga. In winter the latter often wore another gar- 
ment under it, called tunica interior or interula. 

1 u. Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the right side with a 
stripe of purple, called clavus ; knights {equit.es) had two such stripes, but narrower; 
whence the tunic of the senators was called laticlavia, that of the knights angusti- 
clavia. 

2. The emperors exercised the prerogative of bestowing the distinction of the laticlave upon 
such persons as they considered worthy of the honor. Cf. Pliny, Ep. ii. 9. 

§ 334 t. The women used the tunic, with a girdle, as well as the men ; only 
that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore also an over-garment 
extending to the feet, called stola, having a broad border or fringe (limbus) called 
instita. Some consider the palla to be a robe worn over the stola; others think 
them both the same garment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a cir- 
cular form called cyclas. The mourning robe of women was called ricinium or 
rica, covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was a short mantle, or 
vail, worn by the women. 

" A female statue, of the size of life, was found within the cellar of the temple of 
Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a toga. The 
border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, an inch and 
a quarter wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom, with the hand elevated to 
the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga." 

§ 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less in use. The 
fens was a thick woolen over-coat, used in journeying; this name was also 
given to the purple robe of the Flamines (cf. § 214), which was fastened about 
the neck with a buckle or clasp. The paludamentum, or chlamys, was a long 
Grecian cloak of scarlet color bordered with purple, used specially by generals 
and high military officers. The sagum was a soldier's cloak of red color, cover- 
ing only the back and shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was a kind 
of rain cloak, very broad, and usually with a hood or covering for the head 
(cucullus, capitium). The psenula was a robe similar to the toga, and more 
frequently used under the emperors. 

The materials of which the Roman garments were made, were chiefly linen and 
woolen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The Romans 
seem to have remained ignorant how silk was produced, for a long time after the article 
was introduced among them by importation from the country of the Seres. Nor did 
they at first use it without intermixing linen or woolen in texture with it ; for which 
purpose even the silk stuffs, which were brought from the east in a woven state, were 
unraveled ; cloth of this mixed texture is said to have been first fabricated in the island 
of Cos. The Coan vestments (vesles Goaz) appear to have been of a very loose texture, 
almost like muslin or gauze ; hence called ventus textilus, woven wind. The Seric 
vestments (vestes Sericcs) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure silk. The 
term bornbycina was sometimes applied to both, although it seems to have been consi- 
dered as more appropriate for the Coan article; as that was at length known to come 
from a worm (/36pfiv%, bombyx), while the Seric was still imagined to be gathered from 
the leaves of trees (Virg.' Georg. ii. 121). Silk was considered as proper chiefly for 
the garments of females. In the reign of Tiberius the senate (Tacit. Ann. ii. 33) is 
said to have decreed (A. D. 16) that men should not disgrace themselves by wearing 
silk apparel (vestis serica). The emperor Heliogabulus (slain A. D. 222) is severely 
condemned as being the first who wore a robe of pure silk. 

Cf. Article Seres, in Jlnthonh Lempriere, and Sericum, in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities. On the Roman costume, see 0. Fena- 

rius, De Re Vestiaria, in Grxvius, vol. vi. — Becker, Gallus, vol. ii. — Maillot and Martin, cited § 197 .— Ameilhon, L'usage des Soie 
chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlvi. p. 452. — Gibb07i, Rom. Emp. ch. xl. — Mahudel, Origine de le Soie, in the 

Mem. Sj-c. vol. v. p. 218.—/. R. Foster, De Bysso Antiquorum. Lond. 1776. 8. For some illustrations, see Plate XXV. ; cf. § 169, 

for explanations. 

§ 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, or drew over it a 
part of the toga; except at sacred rites and festivals, on journeys, and in war. 
At the festival of the Saturnalia, particularly, they wore a sort of bonnet or 
woolen cap (pikus), which, however, was allowed only to the free by birth or 
manumission, but forbidden to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad-brirnmed 
hat 1 , used in journeying. — There were various coverings for the feet. The cal~ 
cei were somewhat like our shoes, and covered the whole foot, and often with 
their lacings (corrigia, ligula) covered the ankles and the lower part of the leg. 
Shoes of strong untanned leather were termed perones. * The caligse were a kind 



P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 299 

of half-boot, worn by soldiers. The sokse and creptdae were sandals, covering 
only the bottom of the feet, and were fastened by leather thongs and bands (vin- 
culo) passing above. 

The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top of the foot 
a golden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence lunata pellvt, patricia lima). The shoes 
of the men were usually black ; those of women commonly white, sometimes of a red, 
yellow, or other color. The mullei were of a reddish dye ; worn first by the kings, after- 
wards by those who had borne any curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks 
made ol wool or goat's hair, udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around 
with a sort of scarfs (fascia), which were all in the Roman dress that corresponded to 
modern pantaloons or breeches (femoralia) and stockings (tibialia). — The shoes of 
comedians were termed socci ; those of tragedians, cothurni (cf. § 89); those ol panto- 
mimes, or the rattling appendages to them, scahella. The soccus was a mere slipper, 
very frequently of yellow color ; the crepida seems to have been nearly the same ; the 
baxa, was a sandal made of vegetable leaves or twigs ; and the baxa and crepida were 
used by comedians as well as the soccus. 2 

i The bead-covering termed petasus, is seen in our Piale XXIV. fig. 3. 3 See P. V. §§ 317-319.— D. VAulnaye, as cited P. V. 

§ 319. 1. Various forms of coverings for the feet and legs are given in Plate XXIV. ; see the explanation, § 169. 2. 

§ 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the more ancient 
Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In the fifth century after the 
building of the city, it first became a common custom to cut the hair more fre- 
quently, and also to frizzle and anoint it. Young persons were accustomed to 
draw the hair backwards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament. 

1 u. When the toga virilis was assumed (cf. § 332), the hair of the youth was shorn 
and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it into the water in 
honor of Neptune. It was also customary, on the first shaving of the beard, to conse- 
crate it to some deity. Under the emperors false hair were used, by a contrivance like 
a peruke (capillamentum, galericulum). 

2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, which hung 
from the neck on the breast. The boys, who were sons of citizens of the higher 
ranks, wore one of gold (bulla aurea) ; it was usually a hollow sphere ; but other forms, 
and particularly the image of a heart, were introduced. The sons of freedmen and 
poorer citizens used only a leathern ball (bulla scortea). This ornament was laid aside 
when the toga virilis was assumed (cf. § 332), on which occasion the bulla was conse- 
crated to the lares or other divinities. 

Fig. 1, of our Plate XXV. is an altar-shaped box, worn by loose women of the Hindoo temples. 
upon their necks ; riehly ornamented with jewels. Boxes like this, or bags, seem to have been 
formerly worn on the neck to contain perfumes. Cf. Isa. hi. 20 (the tablets), and Sol. Song, i. 13. 
— The figure may serve to illustrate the Roman bulla, as hung from the neck. 

See Mcnitfaucon, Antiq. Expl. as cited § 13. vol. v. p. 68. — Baudtlot, Bulle que les enfants Rom. portoient au cou, in the Mem. 
Acad. Jnscr. vol. iii. p. 211. 

§ 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the dress of their 
hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, and adorned with golden 
chains, with pearls, rings, and ribins. The most modest fashion was the use 
of a broad ribin or fillet (vilta), by which they gathered and bound the hair in a 
bunch or knot. Besides the ointments by which they made their hair more 
glossy, it became fashionable in later times to color it, and even to scatter gold 
dust upon it. 

1. The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the face as 
well as the hair ; both white (cerussa or creta) and red (minium). Various ointments 
(unguent a), cosmetics, and washes (medicamina, smegmata), were likewise used for a 
similar purpose. Effeminate men did the same. Of the various cosmetics we mention 
the following: amaracinum, iasminum, nardinum, cesipum, metopiuvi, rosaceum, 
usi?ium. 

The mirrors (specula) used at the toilet were made of polished metal, commonly brass or steel, 
also of silver; sometimes of glass (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26, 36). Cf. Menard, cited $ 169. 6; cf. 
also $ 268. 4. 

Among the personal ornaments of the Roman ladies were ear-rings, necklaces, and 
finger-rings. The ear-rings (inaures) were of gold, pearls, and gems, sometimes of 
immense value. Necklaces (monilia) were often of gold set with gems; several 
splendid gold necklaces found in Etruscan tombs are now in the British Museum. 
The men also used an ornament for the neck, which was a sort of twisted chain 
(torques), or a circular plate (circulus auri). Finger-rings (annuli) were of various 
forms and devices, commonly set with engraved gems (cf. P. IV. §§ 205, 206), and 
used not merely for ornaments, but for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages 
or vessels ; hence perhaps they obtained the name of symbola. The ring was a very 
common ornament among the men ; originally only senators and equites (cf. % 256. 2) were 



300 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

allowed to wear gold rings ; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by special 
allowance ; those who triumphed also wore an iron ring (ferreus sine gemma). — Jewels 
and other female ornaments were kept in a casket (pyxis, or pyxidula) made of gold, 
tortoise-shell, ivory, or other precious material. 

2. Specimens of most of these ornaments have been found at Pompeii. A gold ring, with an 
engraved gem set in it, was found near a temple, in a box along with forty-one silver coins and 
above one thousand of brass. In several of the houses were found skeletons with rings, brace- 
lets (armillce), necklaces, and other ornaments. Of these specimens we only mention farther an 
ear-ring of gold, which had two pearl pendants ; and a breast-pin, to which was attached a Bac- 
chanalian figure, with a patera in one hand and a glass in the other, having bat's wings joined 
to his shoulders, and two belts of grapes passing across his body. This curious breast-pin is 
given in our Plate XLVII. fig. i— In the same Plate, figs, o, and h, and r, are ear-pendants, from 
Montfaucon. Fig. 4 shows the ring which was passed through the ear. — Fig. g is a pendant with 
a pin to attach it to a bandeau or some part of the head-dress. — This Plate also shows a variety 
of rings: cf. P. IV. $ 206.— The torques is seen in fig. 1, of Plate XL1V., cf. P. IV. $ 186. 9; and 
the monile or necklace, probably, in fig. 5, Plate XXXV.— A mirror, with a box of pins, &c. upon 
a toilet-table, is seen in Plate XXV. figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 2 is a metallic purse for coins and jewels, 
from an Egyptian monument. This plate also shows various forms of the head-dress. 

Cf. R. A Bittiger, Sabina, oder Morgenscenen im Putzzimmer einer reichen Romerinn. Leipz. 1806. 2 th. 8,—Nadal, Luxe des 
dames Romaines, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iv. p. 227. — Seeker, Gallus.— — On rings and their use, /. Kirchmann, De Annulis. 
Lug. Bat. 1672. 12.— P. Burmann, De Jure Annulorum. Ultraj. 1734.— C. Bartholinus, De Inauribus Veterum. Amst. 1676. 12. 

3. The following passage, from a letter by a traveler visiting Naples and Pompeii, may be 
pertinent here. " What is admirable to us, barbarians of the nineteenth century, is the exquisite 
delicacy of shape of all the utensils which served in Roman domestic life. One must see those 
candelebras, lamps, vases of all sizes, those charming little bronze calefactors (for every thing 
was of bronze), those tripods, scales, beds, chairs, those graceful and so ingeniously wrought 
shields, which fill up whole rooms at the Naples Museum. One must, above all, see the toilet 
arsenal of the Roman ladies, their combs, toothpicks, curling-irons, and the pots of vegetable and 
mineral rouge found in a boudoir. Thus the Roman ladies used rouge and deceived people; 
they wore, like our ladies, those necklaces, rings, and ridiculous ear-rings, which add nothing 
to beauty and diminish not ugliness. How times resemble one another, in spite of the space that 
separates them !" 

§ 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable features in the 
funeral customs of the Romans. The dying received from their relatives and 
friends present the last tokens of love by embraces and kisses. As soon as they 
were dead, the nearest relatives closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings 
from their fingers. The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by 
the slaves (pollinctores) of the person taking charge of funerals (libitinarius).' 
It was then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of the deceased, which, 
like that of the mourners, sometimes (cf. §340. 4\ was white. Such as had 
been distinguished by a victory were adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The 
corpse was then brought into the vestibulum of the house, placed on a bier, and 
there left for some days. This exposure was termed collocatio, and the couch 
or bier, lectus feralis. During the time of this exposure, there were frequent and 
loud outcries (conclamatio), accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief 
and sorrow. A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of 
the house. — Children and youth of both sexes were interred by night, with 
lighted torches, without attendants; but adults, on the other hand, by day, and 
with more or less ceremony according to their rank. 

Claude de Guichard, On the Funerals of the Ancients. Rom. 1600. 4. — /. Kirchmann, De Funeribas Romanorum (Libri iv. 
Lub. 1672. 12. 

§ 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were practiced from 
the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with the funeral (elatio, exequiss) 
were the following, chiefly. The funeral of a distinguished person was pre- 
viously announced in the city by a herald, and therefore called funus indicfivum, 
and, if the expenses were defrayed by the city, funus publicum. In the proces- 
sion, the musicians (carnitines, tibicines) and women hired as mourners (prasjicae) 
advanced first, uttering lamentations and singing the funeral songs (lessus, nasniae, 
cf. P. V. § 333 b) ; then came those who bore the images of the ancestors ; next 
the relatives, all in black, with other indications of grief; then followed players, 
mimics, and dancers (ludii, histriones), one of them (arc/iimimus) imitating the 
words and actions of the deceased, and others quoting pertinent passages from 
dramatic writings; after them followed the corpse, carried by bearers; and 
lastly, a train, frequently very numerous, of both sexes. 

1 u. The corpse was borne in a couch (lectica) on the shoulders, usually by the freed- 
meri of the deceased, but often, in case of high rank, by senators and the most dis- 
tinguished citizens. In the case of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was borne 
on a small bier (sandapila), by ordinary coffin-bearers (vespillones , sandapilarii). 



PLATE XXXV. 




mmMm mmammmmmmsm i 



o| |ol lo| I Q | |ol lollol lollol lollol iollei liii lOMknOTiK) 




301 



2C 



302 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

The rich and noble among; the Greeks and Romans were exposed, and carried to their burial, 
on elegant and costly couches, sometimes made of ivory, and gilded with gold; designated by 
the name of feretrum or capulum. That of Herod is said to have been all of gold, and inlaid with 
precious stones. In our Plate XVIII. fig. e, we have a funeral couch, which will illustrate these 
remarks ; it is given by Roberts as used now in India. The Jews seem to have used sometimes 
for a bier the oopos or coffin (cf. Luke vii. 14); yet the Septuagint has the word kXivti, or couch, 
for the bier of Abner (cf. 2 Sam. iii. 31). 

2 u. The procession, when formally conducted, passed through the forum, where, 
if the deceased had been a person of distinction, the body was laid before the place 
of harangue {rostra), and a eulogy (laudatio) was delivered by some relative or friend, 
or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. 

One is struck with the difference between Roman and Egyptian customs. The Egyptians 
brought the deceased to a trial, instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. II. $ 34. 3. 

3. Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. For 
example, Junia, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the honor of a 
public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. The images of not less than 
twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ; viginli clarissimarum familia- 
rum imagines antelalas, sunt. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) — The images of ancestors, which 
were thus used at funerals, were the busts which the higher class of Romans kept in 
their halls (cf. P. IV. § 164). 

In Anthon's Horace, in a note on Sat. i. vi. 17, is the following remark : " One particular rela- 
tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were not car- 
ried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. Jidam (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were employed 
to personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the disguise." 
On this topic, however, consult Polybius, vi. 51, 52. — Cicero, pro Mil. 13 — Dion Cassius, lvi. 134. 
—Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 2.— Suetonius, Vesp. 19. 

4. "As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the senators some- 
times on these occasions went attired like knights, the magistrates like senators, &c, 
and that the common wear for mourners was black. But we may further remark, that 
though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, used alike by both sexes ; yet 
after the establishment of the empire when abundance of party colors came in fashion, 
the old primitive white grew so much into contempt, that at last it became proper to 
the women for their mourning clothes. — The matter of fact is evident from the autho- 
rity of Plutarch, who states this as the subject of one of his problems [or Questions, 
cf. P. V. § 249. 2] , and gives several reasons for the practice." Kennetl. 

§ 341. The place of burning, as also of interring, was without the city. In 
case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile (rogus, pyra) already 
prepared, its height being in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased. 
Upon this they lay the corpse, having sprinkled it over with spices or anointed 
it with oil; it is then kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it 
with averted face (aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed 
by the deceased, were thrown upon the pile: also various things which were 
presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When the whole was con- 
sumed, the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collecting of 
the bones (ossilegium) ; these were placed in an urn {feralis urna) of clay, stone, 
or metals, along with some of the ashes, also spices and perfumes, and some- 
times a small phial of tears (lachrymse) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited 
in the earth [tumulus) or a tomb (sepulchrum, conditorium, cinerarium). 

1 u. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether 
the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin called 
area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the dead (monumenta) was a very 
common, almost universal practice. They were not always raised over the spot of 
burial. 

2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at least a 
mound of earth (tumulus). When a monumental structure was erected, it usually 
received an inscription (titulus, epitaphium) with the name of the deceased, and some- 
thing of his life and character. In the sepulchral monument, part of which is given in 
our Plate XXXVI. the square pannel, seen between the representations of the Dii 
Manes, was occupied by an inscription. Sometimes a bust of the deceased was at- 
tached to the monument. Columns or pillars, particularly small cippi, for sepulchral 
inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Romans, as well as the Greeks 
(cf. $ 187). Sometimes an inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried 
in the earth ; and when the body was burned an inscription was placed on the urn con- 
taining the bones ; the inscription usually began, as on the urns preserved in the British 
Museum, with the letters D. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manibus Sacrum. — Monuments 
not on the spot of burial {tumuli inanes or cenotaphia) were erected among the Romans 
for the same reasons as among the Greeks. 

3. There were public and private places of burial. The public were commonly in 



xxx rj. 




P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. 303 

the Campus Martius or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom the honor of such 
a burial-place was conferred by vote of the senate. Those for the poor were without 
the Esquiline gate, and called puticulce. The private burial-places were usually in 
gardens or fields near the highways ; the sides of some of the roads leading to Rome 
were occupied by tombs for the distance of miles from the gates of the city. 

4. One of the streets discovered at Pompeii is called the street of the tombs. The family tomb 
of Naevoleia Tyche, excavated here, may be considered a fair representation of such structures 
among the Romans generally. "It consists of a square building, containing a small chamber, by 
the side of which is a door giving admission to a small court surrounded by a high wall. The 
entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the outer wall there rise two steps, 
supporting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a bas-relief and inscrip- 
tion. — A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round the funeral chamber, and seve- 
ral niches for the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called columbaria from their resemblance 
to the holes of a pigeon-house. Some lamps were found here, and many urns, three of glass, 
the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them fifteen inches in height 
by ten in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. They contained burnt bones, and a 
liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, wine, and oil. This 
liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the ashes." — In 1780, the beautiful 
antique called the Sarcophagus of Scipio, preserved in the Museum Pio-Clementinum, was found 
in a tomb near the Appian Way. It is of the stone called peperino or "lapis Jllbanus, a volcanic 
production found near the lake of Albano." Visconti, in describing it, says, " est du peperin le 
plus compact, et a douze palmes de long, sur six de haut et cinq de large." The inscription on it 
is given under the head of Roman inscriptions ; see P. IV. $ 133. 2. A bust with a corona on the 
head was found in the same tomb. 

5. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground, and called 
hypogeea. Such are those discovered at Voleterrae and other places in ancient Etruria. 
Cf. P. IV. § 173. 3. "Many of the hypogaea of Tarquinia, in Etruria, are similar to 
those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms and corridors branching out in 
various directions ; and when the rooms are of a large size, the roof is supported by 
square pillars. The walls of many are coated with stucco and ornamented with paint- 
ings, representing, sometimes the arrival of the soul in Hades, and the punishments in- 
flicted on the guilty ; but, in general, mythological, heroic, and civil subjects." 

For an account of the discovery of various tombs in Etruria in 1829, see Chevalier Kestner, in the Annali delV Institute di Cor- 
respondenza Archelogica. Rom. 1829. vol. 1st, p. 101. — Cf. /. Millingen, as cited P. IV. § 173. 3, and other references there given. 

6. Roman sepulchers have been found in England, containing urns with ashes and sarcophagi 
with skeletons. (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.)— A Roman burial-place was called, in the later 
times, Ustrinum, or Ustrina, from the circumstance of burning the corpse. One of these burial- 
places was discovered in 1821, at Littington ; many sepulchral vessels were collected, which are 
said to be preserved in the library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge. — In the parish of Ashdon, in 
Essex county, are several artificial sepulchral mounds, known by the name of Bartlow Hills. 
Many have supposed them to have been cast up after a battle with the Danes. They are eight 
in number ; four larger ones in a line, and four smaller ones in a line in their front. The smaller 
ones were opened in 1832, and relics were found which seem clearly to prove them of Roman 
origin. In one, was found a remarkable brick sepv.lcher or coffin, six feet and three inches long, 
two feet three and a half inches wide, and one foot and eleven inches high. There were, in this 
brick coffin or chest, three glass vessels. One of them was a sort of urn, eleven and a half inches 
high, and ten and a quarter inches in diameter, wilh a reeded handle; it was nearly two-thirds 
full of a clear pale yellow liquor, covering a deposit of burnt human bones; on the top of the 
bones was seen lying a gold ring, which was found to be a signet-ring having a carnelian intaglio, 
with the device of two bearded ears of corn. Afterwards, on examination of the contents of the 
urn, a brass coin was found, very much corroded, bearing the head of the emperor Hadrian on 
the obverse, and on the reverse a figure supposed to be that of Fortuna Redux. A representa- 
tion of the brick coffin, with the vessels in it as they were found, is given in our Plate XVIII. 
fig. h h. One of the larger mounds was opened in April, 1835. An urn like the one above de- 
scribed, with bones, was found; also other similar vessels, two bronze strigiles, and other 
articles. A bronze vase, with colored enamels, was among the most remarkable. 

See P. IV. § !73. 'Z.—Archseologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. xxv. p. 1. vol. xxvi. p. 300, 368, with engravings. 

7. The phials, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the tears of relatives shed 
at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. They are termed lachry- 
matories (urnce lachrymales) . The tears are said to have been kneaded and compounded with 
odoriferous balsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels might have contained merely a 
preparation of fragrant essences, which were figuratively called tears. The lachrymatories found 
in the ancient tombs are sometimes of terra cotta, sometimes of alabaster (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 5), fre- 
quently of glass (cf. $ 268. 4). Many of the latter material have been gathered from the cata- 
combs in the island Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades. Several forms of lachryma- 
tories and vasa unguentaria are given in our Plate XVIII. fig. a, and fig. d d. 

See Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e dt'ffist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 92. sur vases lachrymatoires. On the vessels found at Milo, 

see § 186. 1. 

8. It has been mentioned (cf. $ 187. 4) that the Christians under the pagan emperors of Rome 
usually deposited their dead in subterranean excavations. "Among the monuments of Christian 
antiquity, none are more singular than these abodes of the dead ; and one feels at a loss whether 
most to admire their prodigious extent, the laborious industry that provided them, or the inte- 
resting recollections with which they are associated. Like the Moorish caves in Spain, they 
were generally excavated at the base of a lonely hill, and the entrance was so carefully con- 
cealed that no aperture appeared, and no traces were discernible, except by an experienced eye, 
of the ground having been penetrated, and of the vast dungeons that had been hollowed out 
underneath. . . . One was discovered about three miles from Rome so late as the end of the 
sixteenth century, the size and various apartments of which excited universal astonishment. 



304 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Numbers still remain, bearing the names of their respective founders, and affording by their 
inscriptions and the monuments of antiquity found in them, the most satisfactory proofs of their 
having been used as hiding-places by the Christians." (Coleman's Christian Antiquities, p. 421.) 

§ 342. A period of mourning was observed in memory of the deceased ; its 
duration in each particular case was fixed by law ; in the case of widows it 
continued ten months. In the time of the emperors, a general mourning (luctus 
publicus) was appointed at their decease or that of their sons ; a thing previously 
not practiced, except on occasions of great public calamity. — Immediate^ after 
the funeral obsequies, it was also customary to slay the victims (called inferiae) 
offered in sacrifice to the departed, and to connect therewith a solemn funeral 
repast (silicernium). 

" Among the tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral triclinium for the celebration of these feasts. 
It is open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals in the center of the 
compartments, which have borders of flowers. The triclinium is made of stone with a pedestal 
in the center to receive the table." A view of it from Maiois is given in Smith's Diet, of Anti- 
quities. 

1 u. When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or entertainment 
was publicly given, and meat was sometimes distributed among the people (visceratio). 
These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the graves or spot of interment. On 
such occasions, public games (ludi funebres) were appointed, especially gladiatorial 
sports. 

2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (§ 235), in 
funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other occasions, 
"yet the primitive custom of presenting them at the funerals of great men, all along 
prevailed in the city and Roman provinces ; nor was it confined only to persons of 
quality, but almost every rich man was honored with this solemnity after his death ; 
and this they very commonly provided for in their wills, defining the number of gladia- 
tors as their due by long custom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in 
which the common people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, 
to be expended on this account." (Kennett.) 

3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves of 
the deceased is given by Virgil in the fifth book of the iEneid, where he describes the honors 
rendered by vEneas to the manes of his father Anchises. He mentions particularly a contest in 
rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a trial of skill in shooting arrows, and a mock eques- 
trian battle (pugnce simulacra). — Cf. $ 187. 

$ 343 t. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was the deification (conse- 
emtio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian heroes. It took 
place in the Campus Martius, where the image of the person to be deified was placed 
upon a lofty funeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, pre- 
viously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according to the ideas of the 
people, bore the soul to Olympus. The deified person then received the surname or 
appellation Divus. This solemnity was accompanied also with religious rites, public 
games and banquets. The custom did not entirely cease under the first Christian em- 
perors. This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was 
burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show, before 
these rites were performed with the image of wax. 

The whole ceremony is well described by Herodian (cf. P. V. § 254), in the fourth book of his History.— Cf. Mencken, Disputatio 
de Con8ecratione.— Schcepflin, Tractatus de Apotheosi. Argent. 1730. 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



'A/3an0aK£VffTa, 190 
'AfilfaXot, 163 
'Ayadospyoi, 190 
'AydXpara, 147, 222 
'AyiXai, 189, 192 
'Ayekaaroi, 192 
'AyeXarrn, 192 
*AyKOiva, 202 
'Ay*upa, 200 
'AyXaia, 127 
'Ayiw/zoi, 147, 163 
'Ayopai, 17, 32, 33, 

36, 183 
'AyopaTos, 109 
'Aypiuvia, 168 
'AypOTepa, 102 
'AyX£paX°h 156 
'Ayxicreia, 220 
'Aywyj?, 189 
'Aywf £7rtra0(dj, 174 ; 

evavSpias, 171 
'Ayw^Ej t£poi 173 
'Aywytcrai, 175 
'Ay&woSerat, 175 
'Aycovodsrri;, 171 
'AoSrifayia, 119 
"A&fcf, 214 
"A(5, 7f , 99, 100, 221 
'AAvvaroi, 183, 199 
'Adunw 160 
'Addivia, 168, 169 
'AScaviacrpLds, 169 
, A<5a)i'i<5ta, 169 
'AsiVmH, 187 
'AEupvyia, 187 
'AiVa, 104 
'ABrjucu, 28 
'AO/jj/ata, 171 
'Aflrj^, 28 
'A0X»jrai, 175 
'A6\o9E-ai, 175 
'A0Xoi/, 172 
AiysiSai, 188 
Aiytd^oj, 104 
At y if, 104 
AiQoip, 204 
AucXot/, 190 
Aiviypara, 207 

Ai'oXoj, 113, 116 
AlpEToX, 180 
'Atnu, 220 

AlTr)TLKOL, 163 

Am a, 185 

Ai^aXwroj, 159, 199 
Alxph 153 
AtVipat, 176 
'A/cortoi/, 202 
'A»c£OTO/5tt5at, 162 
'AKCarpa, 218 
'A/waia)?, 196 

39 



'Axy/wi/, 108 

'AKp6d£TOV, 108 
'AKOj/rtot/, 153 

'ACTCTKTIf, 1?3 

'A/cpdrtay/a, 204 
'AKpo/3o\iaTai, 194 
'Aicpodivia, 149, 199 
'AxpoKepaia, 202 
'A/cpdj/ta, 200, 204 
'A/fpon-oXtf, 29 
'A/cpoordXta, 200 
'AKpooTijpia, 204 
A/crata, 178 
'Am;, 28 
'A/cto/07, 153 
"Arai/, 153 
'AXaXayudj, 198 
'AXeinixaTa, 210 
'AXa'7n-at, 210 ' 
'AXenrTrjpiov, 210 
' AXwrpuopavrtia, 168 
'AX^rijpta, 153 
'AX£|tKaKOj, 101 

"AXej dpVKTOl, 262 

' [ A\£vpojxavT£ia, 167 
'AXti/J>/o'tff, 173 
"AXjua, 172 
"AX? Setoj, 207 
'AXttj/wj, 172 
'AXtiraj, 173 
'AXvrapxm, 173 
'AXwa, 112, 168 
'Afia^ovEg, 131 
"A/otv£, 208 
'An<pi[3\r)aTpov, 158 
'Ap(piyvri£ig, 107 
'ApupiKTVOvia, 183 
'Ap.(pcKTVOviKa a9Xa, 174 
' Ap.(pnriroi, 194 
'Ap^LTrpvpvoi, 200 
'Aivpopsv;, 213, 214 
'AvapaOpds, 210 
'Avafiarns, 172 
'Afayx'at'oi/, 187 
'AfaJi)0|U£V)7, 106 
'Avadnpara, 148 
Ai/d/caoj/, 31 
'Afa/cXti/07raXr?, 173 
'AydK-p«T<s, 181 
'Ai/o^uptJcff, 209 
'Afau/zrzxot, 204 
Ai^pa7roJo/ca7ri7Xot, 180 
' AvSpdnoSov, 159 
'AwJ/Jcta, 192 
' Av6po\r]\pia, 186 
'Aj/Jpwvirtf, 210 
Af£p.ot, 128 
' Av£\pia&ov<;, 220 
'Ava(ti6s, 220 
'Ai/0OTr^pta, 168, 169 

AvQ£(JTT}plix>V , 61 



'AvQpdicia, 212 
"Avo&og, 171 
'AfT£pa»;, 106 
'Ai/rtypa<p£iV, 182 
'AvrXia, 200 
'Avrpa, 162 
"Ai>™£, 194 
Avrcopoaia, 185 
[A|ij/^, 196 
' ATray wy.T, 186 
'ATrawupia, 168 
'AnavXia, 220 
A7r/;XtajnK, 128 
"ATTtf, 123 

'Anofiddpai, 202 
'Amiacrai, 182, 212 
' ' Airofivrfipiov , 209 
'ATTO&rat, 189 
'AitOKfipvlis, 220 
'ArnkX^rot, 193 
'Awoppafc, 216 
'ATOrftXfcrjUoV, 198 
'A7rd7-p07rot, 136 

'ATTO'prJTOU, 164 

'ApfivXai, 208 
'ApPvXr,, 208 
'ApyEKpovrris, 109 
'ApynptVt?, 182 
' ' ApyvpoKOiruov , 213 
'Apd"di/tov, 221 
'Ap£t07rayrrat, 184 
'Ap£td7rayoj , 184 
jApw, 105 
'Apfjretpai, 162 
"Aptoroi/, 204 
'ApKreia, 220 
"Ap/xa, 172, 220 
*App.£va, 202 
'AppevurTaX, 202 

' AppLOVlKY], 216 

'Appoaral, 190 
' Appoawoi, 190 
'Aporpov, 212 
'Apovpa, 214 
"ApTraysj, 203 
'Ap7raordf, 216 
"Apmmai, 128 
"Appa, 220 
'Appafiuv, 220 

"ApTBfUS, 101, 114 

'Aprtpov, 202 
'Aprvvot, 193 
'Ap\;ay£rat, 189 
'Apxeio, 190 
'Apxnoi,, 160 
'Apxt£p£tai, 162 
'ApXtcpst'ff, 162 
' ApY<£pwcrii)'77 , 162 
'Ap\;t0£wpof, 172 
'ApxtKpPepviJTris, 203 
'ApXtrfXcovrjf, 262 

2c2 



'ApXtrptx'Xti/Of, 206 
"Apxovres, 180 
'Ao-df&ov, 200 

Acrifiua, 186 

Atria?, 216 

Ao-Kapov, 217 

AaxauXo?, 217 

AcTKupa, 200 
"Ao-7T((5a, ct', 197 
'Acnriff, 153, 194 

A(TT£pcmr]TiK , 95 

Aorpdrsurot, 199 

Acvp/SoXoi, 206 
'Aa0dX(oj, 98 
'A«Acia, 178, 187 
Art/xta, 186, 191,204 
"Art/iOt, 187 
'ArpoTOj, 128 
AiyouardXta, 246 
AiX)?, 210 
AvXrjrrig, 217 
AvXrirpig, 217 

AiXdf, 172, 216 
'Ai/n?, 198 

AvTOKparwp, 190 
Avro^aria, 119 
Atro/^oXot, 199 

Avrd^wv, 178 
AvTOipia, 170 
'A(pajjii<JJTaL, 192 
"Afcaris, 172 
'Ad>£Tai, 189 
"AcpXaara, 200 
'Acppodiata, 168 
'A<ppodiTri, 105 
'A^oppoog, 3 

B 

Bain;, 209 
Bdx%at, 162 
Bax-\;£ia, 169 
Bd«coff, 109 
BaX^ij, 172 
Ba7rrtor>7p(Oi', 210 
Bdpa^pot/, 187 
BapvPpopog, 217 
Bdo-avo;, 180 
Bao-tXfr?, 150 
B«nAeiTs,170,181,207 
Batrravta, 168, 240 
Ban 7 p, 172 
Bav, 214 
Baipuop, 264 
BefaXoi, 163 
BacJtarot, 190 
B£(fXo7r£j, 19 
BiX,, 153 
B£Xopavr£ia, 167 
Bi;0a?d*a, 52 
B^o, 33 
B>5/<ara, 186 

305 



306 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



B\avrai, 208 
BorjSpopaov, 60 
Bodpos, 149 
Boiorapxai, 192 
BoXig, 202 
B6ix(3os, 168 
B6p.3vl, 298 
Bop£a f , 128 
Bdrpus, 212 
Bouou. 189 
Bov6vt<zi, 163 
BooXcroi/, 33, 184 
"Bov'Xewis, 186 
BouXfural, 177 
BovXeunjpta, 32 
BovXsvTijpLOv, 184 

BouXn, 177, 184 
Bos?, 213 
Bpdpeiov, 172 

Bpaupo.v<a, 168 
Bpofrerof, 176 
BpOi/T?7ro f , 167 

Bpd^ 0( , 158 
Bp6 X o s , 187, 191 
Bvpva, 57 
Bwtof, 166 
BwjxoI, 148, 160 
Ewp-dj, raw SjJdexa, 87 



raXa«rdo-7rovJa, 147 
Tap.r]\(a, 96 
TajxriXiibv, 61 
Ta/xfiXioi Srsol, 220 
r<V*, 206, 218, 220 
Taarpa, 200 
raarprj, 167 
TaarpojiavTEia, 167 
TsionrobiGLiara, 210 
Teveoia, 222 
riwj, 177, 189 
Tkpavog, 176 
TepdaKrat, 188 
Tepowta. 190, 192 
rs/3/W, 196, 198 
lipoma, 190 
rscpupa, 200 
Tswpopoi, 192 
rtyas, 125 
Viyypa, 217 
rVyypaira, 169 
r«yypao-/i()f, 169 
Yiyypng, 169 
rtyypiai, 169 
TXavKconig, 105 
TXa^, 213 
rXeiJ/fOf, 204 
Tvcupevs, 264 
ri/jjo-tot,! 220 
Tvf/aws, 162 
TvioOt ffsavrov, 165 
Tvcj/jlwv, 60 
TovvnereTv, 147 
ropyo^£f, 130 
Topydj/toj/, 131 
Topyvpa, 187 
TpaiKol, 141 
Tpaptparev;, 181, 182 

193 
Tpa^, 186 



rptyof, 207 

rpu^, 132 

rfiijf, 212 

rtfflewi/, 38 
Tv\iov, 154 
rvLivcHTiapxla, 182 
rty/vflwrfc, 175 
ruj/aiK£ioj/, 159 
rui/acwjv, 159, 210 



AaSovxos, 170 
Aaipove*;, 129 
AatpovoXirjirTOL, 167 
Acurpdj, 207 
Aa*cruXoi> a?p£, 173 
Aa/croXo?, 214 
AavaKT], 221 
Aa^^r), 163 
Aafvrifopia, 168 
AEtXi?, 59 
A£tXtj/oj/, 204 
AeTnvov, 204 
AsK&Sapxoi, 196 
Aeitadovxoi, 177 
A£(f«;. 191 
A£/cao-pdj, 186 
AeKCcrevrripiov, 182 
A£*aT7?, 182 
AtKOtpQivoi, 60 
A£X0b, 203 
Aeffoj, 167 
Away, 207 
Aip/xa, 199 
Aw/xdf, 187 
Aeaporfipiov, 187 
AtcnroaiovavTai, 189 
A£%i7//£pa, 61 
AijXta, 168 
AfJLiapxoi, 181 
Ar,p:fiTr,p, 110, 112 
Arjprjrpta, 168 
Atipnrpias, 61 
Aiipio-rrpara, 182 
AripLiovpyoi, 193 
A5/KH, 177, 178 
Aripdotot, 180, 181 
Ar7W, 112 
Aia/?a0pa, 208 
Aiaypac/>£t?, 182 
Ata<3>7p.a, 150 
AiaS6fj£i$, 183 
AiaSjKri, 221 
Atatr/yrai, 186 
Al&KTWp, 109 
AiaWcucrfipioi, 186 
Aiavoiiai, 183 
Aiapxh, 190 
AiavXSpoLioi, 172 
AiauXoj, 172 
AiSpaxpov, 213 
Aidvpap/3os, 109 
AiiVoXaa, 168 
Afcai, 186 
AiKaia, 221 
AikclvikoI \6yot, 204 
AtKcurral, 185 
AiKourrftpiov, 185 
At'**, 117, 127, 180. 
186 



AiKpora, 154 
At/crua, 158 
Aijuaxa', 194 
Aiowtna, 168, 169 
Aidyucroy, 109 
Ai07T£r»7, 160 
AiocripLEta, 167 
Awaxovpia, 136 
AcdoTOtipot, 135 
At7rXrtcr(acrjudj, 197 
AiTruXoi/, 28 
AeovcQf, 173 
Aupdipai, 209 
Atypo?, 153, 157 
Ai(ppo(p6pot, 172 
Aia)/3o\ia, 183 

AU0KCl)V, 185 

Aio3p\oaia, 184, 185 
Atwfis, 185 
Aicorr;, 213 
AoKipama, 181 
AdXiOf, 109 
AdXcw, 172' 
AdXwi/, 202 
Aojudj, 170 
Adpara, 203 
AopaTO(p6poi t 194 

Adp7T0f, 204 

Adpu, 153 ; £7ri, 197 
AopviiXcorot, 199 
AovXsia, 187 
AoSXot, 159, 180, 207 
Aovpo86icri, 153 
Apa^M, 184, 213 
Ap£navr](p6poi, 194 
Apkiravov, 203 
Apopos, 172 
Apt)£j fiavTiKai, 164 
Avpiavdrai, 188 
AvwSeKodpoLioi, 172 
AtJwpot, 172 
Awfao Sou, 87 
AwoWaioe %aX/c£io!/, 

165 
Aw^wi/aiof, 95 
Awpa, 148, 207 
AcopoSoKia, 186 

E 

"Ey/cX^a, 185 
'Eymn'Xia, 200 
'Eyxoppopa, 209 
'Ey/ow/maori/coi, 204 
'Eyxapt&oy, 196 
"Ey%o f , 153 
'EJwXm, 200 
"Efeipa, 208 
*E0wj, 177 
Et/ca?, 61 
Ei'w, 187 
EtXamii/17, 204 
Ei'X«'0D«a, 102 
Ei'Xwrfi?, 189 
Etjuo, 209 
EVpeves, 189 
Eiprjj/r?, 117,127, 197 
Eto-ayyeXio, 186 
BigcpipovTEs, 182 
Ei<r<popal, 182 
"Eicaroppaia, 168 



'YjKaropPauov, 60 
'BKaropPri, 147 
'FiKaronflota, 96 
'EKardp.7r£<5oi/, 29 
'E/caroi/rapX'a, 196 
*E<cyow)£, 220 
'E/fJwia, 117 
''~EKri06\os, 101 
'E^Xjjfftoi, 183, 190 
'IRKicoixiSri, 221 
'E*Xoyeis, 182, 185 
'EvoTOT-jAfoi, 167 
"E/craKTOt, 196 
'E/c0opa, 221 
'EXa% arcipavog, 191 
'EXatof, 212 
'EXaidjTroj/cta, 147 
'EXa0??/3dX(a, 61 
'JtiXa(j)ril3o\uou, 61 
'EXOToXfj, 198 
'EXcwrvia, 168, 169 
"EXwsff, 208 
'EXXawjiVat, 173, 175 
''EWrjvoSiKaXoi', 174 

'EXX>7I'W!/(7)W£(5p(01', 183 

; EXXd/? t a, 208 - 
"EXv//a, 212 
"EXvpOg, 217 
'E/i/?aff, 176 
'EpP&Tat, 208 
'EpfidTEia, 220 
'EpPariipiov, 198 
'Ep./?oX>% 198 
*E/i0oXoi/, 196, 200 
'E/x/T£Xa)po(, 190 
'E//7r^£Uff7-a, 216 
'Evaytcr/ia, 149 
''Evayicfxara, 222 
"Ei/apa, 199 
"Ew5£ t f (f , 186 
"Evfea, 181, 185 
'Ev0ou<nacrrai, 167 
'Ewa£T , i7ptj, 174 
"Ej/^ara, 222 
'"EwoupQivoi, 60 
'Eyv£a7ruXoy, 29 
'E^ Ilporai/eiw, 185 
'Evvttviov, 167 
'Ei/wu, 105, 119 
'Ftvcppsarroi ', 185 
'Evw/jon'a, 197 
'Evcuna, 208 
'EfcAiy/afc, 197 
'Ef£Ta(rrat, 180 
"E|r7/?oi, 189 
'EfwXat/xot, 107 
'Efw/xij, 209 
. '~EnaiK\ov, 190 
'ErraXfecs, 198 
'BnavXia, 220 
'ETTCTj/aAcrot, 189 
'E7r£/?a0pat, 198, 202 
'Bmpdrai, 202 
Eniyovoi, 136 
'E7r lypappara, 199 
'~Emypa(pai, 222 
'E7rtypa<p£r?, 182 
'EttWeotj/o, 206 
'E7ri AsXcpivio), 185 
"EnriSpoiios, 202 






INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



307 



' En iQaXdpiov, 220 
'Eiridopa, 222 
'EmKXrjpoi, 220 
'EmKConoi, 200, 202 
'EmXapxia, 197 
'E;ri Avkov, 186 
'Enipa\ia, 197 
'EmiisXoral, 170, 174, 

221 
'Em Unrixov, 185 
'E7T(op«-ta, 163 
'Eti naXXaJt'M, 185 

'ET£0-£lWi/, 200 

'E7rcW »pof, 216 
'ETnarur^, 183, 184 
'EmaroXevs, 203 
'ETrt'rayua, 197 
'En-iVovoi, 202 
'EwiTpom), 200 
'Enirponos, 220 
'Eno/3sXia OTEnoifieXia, 

185 
'ETrdirrat, 170 
'ETOupavfOi, 87 
'Enraxopjoj, 216 

'ETTCJ/iif, 209 

'F,noovvp:oi, 188 
'EttwtiJes-, 202 
"Epavos, 157, 206 
'EpardJ, 126 
'Epyavr), 105, 119 
'EpyatTTiKcii, 171 
"Epyaris, 105 
'Epirai, 202 
'Ep^T^ot, 202 
'Ep£rpfa, 32 
'EpzxQek, 29 
'EptxBziov, 29 
'Epti/i/u£j, 128 
"Ep £f , 115 
"EpKOf, 160, 222 
"Epp.a, 200 
"Epjxaia, 168 
"Eppara, 208 
'Epp-rii, 108 
'Epy/cn?p£f, 189 
'Epw,-, 106 
"Ecr%a, 209 
'Eami'piapa, 204 
'E™a, 113, 212 
'Eoriacn?, 182 
'Eariaropiov, 210 
'Eirndrcop, 206 
'Ea-Y«pa, 212 
'ETXapsv;, 203 
'Erat'pa, 106 
'Eraipai, 220 
'Er:pt>p ivxaXoi, 180 
EuayyfXi/ri} d-drki^j, 

272 
EWfiwj, 181 
Ev9uvoi, 180 
Efyiei/ife, 128, 168 
EvpoXniSai, 162 
Efoij, 200 
Euw^ii, 117, 127 
Evopxog, 164 
Eupoj, 128 
Emtfhs, 164 
Evripnri, 126 



Eu.xai, 147 
Etxppoavurj, 127 
'Ecpeipag, 171 
'Epkiria, 168 
'Ephrpis, 209 
Efirai, 185 
"Efr,Poi, 189, 190 
Ep^y^?, 186 
'Er/udXn??, 167 
'Erpinntov, 266 
E^oJaa, 197 
E^opaoi/, 190 
'E0opoi, 170, 190 
'E^u0»7, 218 
ExsrAj?, 212 
E^/xa, 204 
Ea5 s , 59, 114 

Z 

Z£uyirai, 177 
ZsS nd«p, 95 
Zevs, 94, 95 
Zevs arvyios, 100 
Z#i5po s , 128 
Z w ia, 186, 191 
Zyya, 200, 202 
Zoyia, 96 
ZvyTrai, 202 
Zvyol, 197 
Zuydy, 196 
Zcop.oj jxsXag, 191 

Zwj/, 153, 208 

Zwrrjpes, 200 
Zworpoj/, 209 

H 

'HXctKOLTr], 202 

'HXtaia, 185 
'HAtoffroi, 181, 185 
TEIXiaff, 100, 114 
'HXtorpdrnoy, 60 
r H//ap, 59 
'Hptpa, 114 
'Hptpas dpnayt], 115 
'Hp.spodp6p.oi, 199 

'H/XISKTOV, 214 

'H/ztSajpaKtoy, 194 
[Hvioxos, 153 
'H7rardcr/c(Wia, 167 
"Hpa, 96 
,'Hpafa, 96, 168 
Hpiai nvXai, 222 
t 'Hptoi/, 222 
'Hpoja, 222 
'Hr/>aioT£(a, 168 
"Hrpaiaro,-, 107 
'Hxsia, 176 
'Ha5?, 59, 114 

e 

BaXapTrai, 202 
eaXa/xoj, 220 
GdXaa, 126, 127 
GaXXoi, 147 
QaXXo<j>6poi, 171 
Odvarog, 130, 187 
Bapyr)Xiii>v, 61 
OauXwi/uki, 162 
G£al a-Epvai, 184 
Qiarpov, 33 



ee/tiXwj, 202 
e^u, 117, 188 
GEOI AAEAi>OI, 124 

Osol o[ psydXot, 87 
QzoXoyelov, 176 
Oeopavreia, 166 
QsopavTEis, 166 
0£of£i/ta, 31 
QEonponoi, 164 
0£oupyoi, 162 
Qspiarpiov, 209 
QeapoBhai, 181, 185 
9£ff/W£, 188 
Qeajxo(f>optXov , 171 
Qeapoipopia, 112, 168, 

170 
QeapoQopos, 112, 170 
0£roi, 220 
G£«pt*a, 176, 183 
GEajpot, 164, 174 
e>J/oj, 222 
GJjcraa, 135 
ei?r£ f , 160, 177 
epai/ZYcu, 202 
Gpdyoj, 202 
ep^i/os, 221 
eprjvvg, 157 
Qpfivwv elapxpi, 221 
epjymfc, 222 
6pWa£, 206 
Q P q, 208 ; 

dvSpano5u>6rjs , 180 

Gpdw?, 157, 212 
GfoXXcu, 128 
Qvpiapa, 163 
ewo ff| 147 
Gvpa, 210 
6up6dj, 196 
Qvpsocpopoi, 194 

eupuk?, 210 

Owi'ai, 147 
evades, 162 
Qvtcu, 162 
Gcopdjaov, 198 
6'JK, 153, 194 



iaj^of, 170 
UXepoi, 221 
Uatoj, 95 
fcpa, 28, 160 
hpa (pdXayt, 220 
lipsiai, 162 
lepsloi/, 163 
Iepeiff, 162 
lEpoiiStiiTKaXot, 162 
^Ifpdc'ouXoi, 163 
lepopavrua, 167 
hpopvfiptov, 163 
Tepdi/, 117 
l£po7rojoi, 162, 170 

l£poo-OT77ia, 167 
IcpotjvXia, 186 
l£poopyoi, 162 
hpo<j>dvTai, 162, 170 
lepopavrri;, 170 
leptxpavrides, 162 

I*f£r£(7(Of, 95 

I«-p(a, 200 
IXao-poj, 163 



'IXao-n/ca, 163 

"IX„, 197 

'Ipas, 173, 199, 202, 

208, 212 
'Iparwv, 208 
[16 S , 153 
'IoX£a(pa, 102 
'I^-ffaypirat, 190 
'Itnrayuyyol, 194 
'Imcapxns, 194 
'Lmrapxia, 197 
"l7T7rapxo(, 196 

iTTTTfilOj, 98 

'Wis, 153, 177, 190 
194 

'Iirirotipo/jos, 38 
'l7T7roXiir£(a, 29 
'lnnOTolorai, 194 
"iTnrwi/, ro £0', 193 
'Ipevss, 189 
lp( ? , 115 
"laBpia, \15 
"loOTVpavvos , 190 
'IoTto, 202 
'larofioEvs, 212 
'Ioro(5w>7, 202 
|Ioro7rd(5£f, 218 
'lard f , 202, 218 
'IxOvopavTEia, 167 

K 

Ka&leKOs, 184 
Kddot, 184, 214 
KdJoj, 214 
Kadappol, 14? 
Ka0£c5pa, 169 
Kadsrfip, 263 
Kaiddaj, 191 
Kawftoj, 128 
KaXdOiov, 170 
KaXXi07rr7, 126 
KaXoPdrris, 244 
KdXo £ , 202 
KdX:raf, 221 
KdXwrrpa, 208, 218 
KaXw<5(Oj/, 173, 202 
KdpriXoi, 202 
Kapnrijp, 172 
Kavricpopoi, 172 
Kayflapof, 207 
Ka^wj/, 172 
Ka7TW<5d>>-/7, 210 
Ka7ryo//ayr£ia, 167 
KapParivai, 208 
Kapx>j<noi/, 207 
Kdpueia, 168 
Kara.j3aQp.ds, 54 
Kara,3Xr]TiK)i , 173 
Kara/?oX>j, 206 
Karaypatpr), 193 
KardXoyof, 193 
Kara7rfXra«, 198 
Kara7rocr(o-pdj, 187 
Kardorao-tj, 193 
Ka-aippaypara, 202 
KaTaippaxroi, 194 
Kan7yopicu, 186 
KdroTi-rpa, 209, 212 
Karcoyd/fr;, 209 



308 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



Kawia, 208 

Kavrfipiov, 263 

Keadas, or Kaiadag, 
187, 191 

Kexpoms, 178 

KexpixpaXo;, 208 

KeXewmte, 203, 282 

Ki\r,T€ S , 154, 172 

Kcvijpca, 223 

KevoT&cfna, 191, 223 

KkvTr)aig, 191 

Kevrpov, 266 

K«paia, 202 

KepafiSLKOs , 32 

KepaixEvg, 263 

Kepdpioj/, 214, 263 

K£papo s , 187 

Kept*?, 208, 217, 297 

Kfipara, 196, 202 

KepaTivh, 217 

Kfpdrtoi/, 214 

Kepawioy, 95 

KepavvooKO-rreiov, 176 

Kep&Jo ? , 109 

Kcjwif, 218 

K£pp.a, 213 

Kepovxoi, 202 

Ke^aXfi Ssiirvov, 206 

K^mu 'A&oi/itJoy, 169 

K»7pe?, 130 

Kr]pop.avTeia, 167 

KripvicEiov , 197 

Ki?pv£, K^pwcEy, 148, 
150, 162, 170, 
181, 197, 207 

KiyicXides, 185 

Kiddpa, 216 

Kikiwoj, 208 

Kipicoviov teTx !, 29 

Kii/fya, 217 
.KiffT*?, 212 

Kio-TOtpopoi, 170 

KXdfot iKTrjpioi, 147 

KX«w>l, 220 

KXet's, 210 

KXetu, 126 

KKetpvtya, 185, 240 

K\riS6vss, 168 

KX^po/xavreia, 167 

KXripovop.os, 220 

KX>7poy, 220 

KX^pwrot, 180 

KXriTrjpes, 185 

KXfjrwp, 185 

KXijuaws, 198, 210 

KXivat, 206 

KXti/Jj, 212, 221, 302 

KXuny, 197 

KX«7//df, 157 

KXotoy, 187, 191 

KXcoflu, 128 

KwN«&S, 153 

Ki/iWtj, 148 

Kdy£, 170 

Kd0opj/ot, 208 

K60opw, 176 

Koi\e F l3o\ov, 197 

Kot'X/7, 200 

KotXot, 60 

Kot/jirjTfipiov, 223 



Kotnj, 212 
Kojtwi/, 210 
Kd/iij, 208 
Kovtoi, 202 
Kovrofopoi, 194 
Kcwrif, 191, 196 
Kd:nra, 214 
Kdpat, 208 
Kdp^, 213 
Kdpa>7, 208 
K6pvp0o s , 208 
Kopw>7, 196 
Kopvs, 153 
Kdcr//ot, 191 
Kdrtj/oy, 173 
Kdrrapos, 207 
Kon3X>j, 214 

KOTVTTU), 119 

Kov/»i f 207 
Kd^Xot, 198, 214 
KoxXidptoy, 214 
KoxXiw, 214 
Kpdi/of, 153 
Kparfjpeg, 207 
Kparrjp, 204, 207 
Kpfidepivov, 208 
Kp^ydj, 187 
Kpijrrr&f, 208 
Kpqffi's, 222 
Kpws, 198 
Kpoi5p.ara, 217 
VLpoKn, 218 
Kpo/cd7r£7rXoj, 115 
KpdraXoi/, 218 
Kpwrm'a, 189 
Kp«/Moy, 208 
KSaft», 207 
Kva,wi, 180, 183, 206 
Kvavkp[}o\oi, 200 
Kv/?eia, 206 
Kvf3epvrjrris, 203 
KvfiiaTriais, 175 
Kv(3 ioTr)Trjpes , 216 
KwXo?, 32, 62, 194 
KiJXtf, 207, 297 
KvXto-tf, 173 
Kv\\on66r)S, 107 
K^tfaXa, 217 
Kw&j, 153 
Kvunydg, 102 
Kui/do-oupa, 188 
YLvvooovpeZs , 188 
Kiroff, 200 
Kfty&w, 187, 191 
Kw<W, 217 
KwXtirccai, 167 
Kcop.o f , 119 
Kwraov, 187 
Kionai, 202 
K&>7rrjXdrai, 202 
KoiKfipr,, 200 
Kwy, 187 

A 

AaKKog, 149 
Aa/cwvj/cat, 208 
Aap.7rd<W f/pepa, 170 
KapvaxEs, 221 
Aa<ri7(Oi/, 196 
Acupvpa, 199 



Adxans, 128 
A£t7iwaurat, 204 
AfitToi/aiirioi', 186 
Atmoarpdriov , 186 
A£i7rord>frat, 199 
A£i7rord£iov, 186 
Aeirovpyiai, 181 
Awr/wv 149, 220 
AenraXlai, 217 
Acttoi/, 213 
Aicxxri, 189 
A£wfay0>K, 91 
Ari)>ca>/*a, 181 
Aixos, 212, 220 
A»5Jo f , 209 
AfiKvdoi, 221 
A>7i/aia, 169 
Ari\iapxpi, 181 
Afjtis, 185 
A^rw, 116 
Ai6o/3o\ia, 187 
Atdop6\ot, 198 
Afflot, 196 
A t0o j Trparfip, 180 
Aip.va.rai, 188 
AtVa, 158 
Afc//, 128 
Atxai/o f , 216 
Aoyd&ry, 191 
AoyeTov, 176, 247 
Adyta, 164 
Aoytorai, 180 
Aoytorfis, 203 
Aot/?ai, 147 
Aofas, 101, 166 
Aovrfipiov, 212 
Aovrpdy, 210 
AoipeTov, 212 
Ad0oy, 153 
Aoxayoi, 196 
Aoxsto, 102 
Adxo f , 196, 197 
AvKaia, 116, 168 
Avert £tovoj, 31 

M 
MaydSig, 217 
Mdyava, 198 
Mdyot, 167 
Md(,a, 206 
Ma^at, 190 
MaipaKrripicbv, 60 
Mati/dJey, 162 
Ma/cpd ck£\y], 29 
MaKpat vffcy, 154 
Ma/cpat nirpai, 31 
MoXdw, 206 
MaXXd f , 208 
Maj/Kra, 164 
Maj/r£i3/xara, 164 
MavriKfi, 164, 166 
Maprup£ f , 185 
Maprvpcjv yevkdXia, 222 
Maariyotpopot, 174 
MaoTtywcrt?, 191 
Mdortf , 260 
Md^aipa, 196 
Medt/xvos, 214 
M£tXt'xat, 173 
MeAfo, 153 



MfXtoTroj/Ja, 147 
Mtho-vat, 162 
MfXtrroCra. 221 
MeXironcvr), 126 
Mfpap^ta, 196 
Mfffd^rj, 202 
M£<rd/cotXoj, 200 
Meao/xipaXiov , 194 
Mftwavrai, 202 
Mficrouptai, 202 
Mfctjodrat, 188 
M£ra#>X>), 197 
M£ray£trj'td)i', 60 
M£rai3dp7ria, 206 
MswtKoi, 171, 178, 

182 
Mctoikiov, 178 
Merpijrris, 214 
MirwTroi/, 196, 200 
M>jX>7, 263 

Mrivdslarranevov, &C. 61 
M/?pot, 148 
Mrixaval, 198 
Mijxav^, 176 
MiXrOTidpriot, 200 
Mt(T0df fiovXevTiKOs , 

&c. 183 
Mi rpa, 208 
Mtrp^, 194 
Mva, 213 
Mi/^a, 222 
MvriitsTov, 222 
Mi/Jjorpoj', 220 
Mvoi'o, 192 
Md0w£ S , 189 
MoTpai, 128 
MoXtt»7, 207 
Mo\v/3dvvai, 153 
Mdj/avXoj, 217 
Movfipsig, 154 
Moi^dx-pora, 154 
Movopdxot, 244 
Mopai, 188, 197 
Moptat, 171 
Mop<psvs, 130 
Mop^ii, 130 
Movvvxta, 33, 61 
Mowux«oi', 31 
Movwxitov, 61 
Mowat, 126 
Mow£roj/, 31 
Mowtitfi, 216 
MovaiKn xpiXri, 216 
MvOol, 83 
Mw0oXoyta, 83 
Mv\og oviko;, 264 
MvXwwj, 180 
Mvpiopil3\ov, 499 
Mvpprjraj, 173 
Mvcrr^pta, 169 
Mvcttiko; trr/TOj, 170 
Md3//oj, 119 

N 
Nd/?Xa, 217 
NattJta, 222 
Naoi, 160 
Nao0iiXaK£f, 162 
Navapxos, 203 
NaJrat, 202 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



309 



Nau0vXa«j, 203 
NsKpd5siirvov, 149 
NeKpoOonrrai, 221 
NsKpOjiavrsia, 167 
Nexvaia, 222 
NefxeTa or Ns/jaia, 174 
Nspart?, 117 

Nco<Jo/*w&tj, 189 

Neofirifia, 61 
Neupddsra, 216 
Nswpov, 153 
N&jieXnyepsnK, 95 
Ncawcdpot, 162 
Nr?£j dpKpiirpvpvoi, 200 
Nr/orfiia, 171 
Nijrij, 216 
Ni*»>, 29 
Nd0o<, 220 
Nofjcij, 200 
No/xipa, 221 
Ntf/nopa, 213 
Nopoderdt, 181 
Nd^ot, 216 
Nd/xof, 188 
No/wfvXaKes, 172, 

181, 190 
Noras, 128 
Nfy0ai, 126 
Nvfi'paia, 126 
NiW>r/, 212 



Eewa, 207 

Z.SVWS, 95, 15S 

E£1>0£, 178 
~= karris, 214 
E«poy, 153, 187 
sLvtrrafOCnSf 175 
Ewrtiff, 173 
Hvorobopoi, 194 
zvarpa, 210 



'0/?oX°?,213,214,221 
'Oy<5d<5(o»>, 135 
'Oy«>f, 176 
'Ocfyyd?, 109 
'066vt£ S , 202 
OAPY2H2 NTM- 

$AI2, 110 
'Odovai, 202 
Oia£, 200 
OiKtrai, 180 
OiKri/xa, 187 
Oixovopos, 180 
0?w»s, 210 

OlKOryKOTTlKOV, 168 
OlKOVpOl d'0£(f, 28 

Olvojxavreia, 167 
Oiv6fu\i, 206 

Oivoj pvppivlrrjs, 204 
OtVo^dot, 207 
Oiortt, 153 

OlWV lOTlKr), 167 
'OKraerripls, 60 
'OXiyoq,6poi, 204 
'OX/cdfo, 200 
*OXwt, 202 
'OXotyvppol, 221 
'OXvp7r£iov, 31 



"Opom, 188 
'Opto-arpiovs, 218 
"O/arag, 170 
'Op<pa\ds, 194 
'OppaXdj yfjSf 165 
'OvapOKpirai, 167 
'0^(po7rdXot, 167 
*Ompo ff , 130, 167 

'OfipOO-KOTTOl, 167 

"Ofw/ScXeTs, 198 

'O^-uj pvyx°s, 54 
'O.T«70d&uoj, 29, 160 
"OtX<z, 202 
'OrXirac, 153, 193 
'On-Xiro(5pd^oi, 172 
"OXoi/, 194 
"Opa/za, 167 
'Opyay, 162 
"Opyta, 169 
'Opyiud, 214 
'OpeuLKOtTOg, 102 
"Opflws, 216 
'OpfoTrdXrj, 173 
"Opxia te/ivelv, 164 
"Op/ao?, 95 

"Op/coj /3ov\evriKog , 184 
"Opraj jutyaj, 163 
"Oppot, 33 
"Op//o f , 208 

'OpVEOKOTTOl, 167 

'OpvtdoptavrEis, 167 
'Optrivscpris, 95 
"Opuypa, 187 
'OpX<7Trv f , 207 
"0<na, 221 
"Oaten, 166 
'OffiwrJjp, 166 
'OaKO'.popia, 168 
'Ooroooxaa, 221 
'Oaro^/cat, 221 
'OaroXdytoy, 221 
'Oorpd/fi^of, 263 
'Oarpa/Cia/idj, 187 
"OarpciKOv, 187 
'QaXOipopia, 168 
"Orra;, 168 
OuXai, 147 
OiXdxw-a, 148 
Oi)pd, 196, 200 
Oypayoi, 277 
Oipaydf, 196 
Ovpavia, 31, 126 
Oipavos, 114 
'O^0aXp.d f , 200 
'OipQaXptovs cvyKXeieiv, 

149 
'O,\;a)/oi/, 194 
'O^rfs, 153 
'OX'7pd7"WJ', rd £</>', 193 
"Oi/w, 206 

n 

TiayKpariaaral, 173 
Ilay/cpdrioi', 173 
riatoy, 198 
Ylaikpaiyria, 220 
JlacAwfyoj, 189, 190 
JIaXi?, 37, 173 
IlaXXoofi&s, 220 
IlaXXdy, 104 



IloXjuoi, 168 
IlaXrdj/, 153 
Uap/SaixiXeia, 189 
YIctpPoKOTia, 192 
lla.pp.axoi, 173 
TlappaXiov, 173 
TldptpoXoi, 188 
nav, 116 

noi/ofljji/aia, 168, 171 
navaS/jvau/cdi/, 171 
IIaf(5a(!7!a(, 206 
Ilai/(5a^iOT£, 172 
ndi/d^o?, 36, 106 
Uavdoxnov, 208 
ndvJpoo-oj, 29 
TlavBeov, 31 
Ilai^yupis, 174 
Ilcmwi/ SeTpia, 116 
riayroJa7r>7 IcTOpia, 252 
nd7T7rOf npcorog, 176 
Tiapaftvarov, 186 
napaypaip*), 185 
Tlapaift arris, 153 
riapa/cara/JoX)), 185 
IlapaXfa, 178 
ndpaXoj, 42, 187 
IlapapripLOia, 194 
Tlapavvp'pos, 220 
Ti.apalupi6i.ov, 196 
napa7rX£J>pi<5:a, 194 
TiapaaripLOv, 200 
Ilapdcrcrot, 162 
riapao-iToiv, 162 
IIapa(n-d<7tj, 185 
napacrw0)7p.ara, 198 
Ildp£(5po(, 181 
I7ap£<ai, 200 
TlapOkvoi, 29 
Tlapdhog, 104, 105 
Ilapflei/wi/, 178, 218 
ndpo^of, 220 
natrrdj, 220 
II&$tXa, 208 

U&xfr, 193 

n£(pa(£t5?, 33 
Heio-iavaKrios, 31 
Ueio-para, 202 
IlfXaa-ywdi/, 29 
UsKavoi, 163 
IfcXdrat, 160 
Itikeiadeg, 165 
ffiXaat, 165 
nlX^uj, 196 
TieXonos vrjaos, 34 
ri£Xrao-rai, 194 
IleXrij, 194, 196 
TleXupia, 91, 168 
Tikpmara, 163 
Il£p7rd Sapxot, 196 
ri£//Trdf, 196 
n£vra£r??pif, 174 
Tlkvra3\ov, 172 
risyraKOa-iOpE^pvot, 177 
TlwrriKOarvg, 197 
Il£^r»7p£(f, 202 
IlorXoi, 157 
nnrXos, 171 
IIotXou dtioi, 171 
Ilspt.Sapidss, 208 
nepifioXos, 160 



rfeptcWwv, 149 
TLepiepya, 167 

I\zpiriyri?ai, 166 
nepufe^aXaia, 153 
TlzpwiKo6opi, 222 
IlfpioiAfot, 189 
TlipL-ETi<Tj.iaTa, 148 
n£pt7roX£toj/, 197 
Il£pt7roXoi, 197 
Tiepippavrfipiov, 160, 

163 
IlepjffKEXfy, 209 
nsp!r£t,\(o-/idj, 198 
Jlepirdffta, 200 
TlepicpepEta, 194 
HspKppuypa-a, 202 
IIspdi/,7, 218 
Uspov^aTa, 148, 218 
TiEpaE(p6vri , 99 
nlraXa, 187 
ri£raX«rp.ds, 187 
Ilsratroff, 208 
Tle-pai paxpai, &C. 31 
n£rpo/?dXot, 198 
Uerpcj/jia, 170 
ll£rr£ia, 206 
n^yopatTEta, 167 
iMdXtoj/, 200 
Dij/er^, 217 
IETxus, 214 
HtXtdia, 208 
IltXof, 208 
JJiv&Kia, 180 
lli'j/a^ dyvpTiKds, 167 
ritOTif Arriw), 164 
Iltra^drat, 188 
TlXayiavXos , 216 
JlXato-wj/, 197 
nXa*-[j, 171 
nXardi^tara, 38, 190 
TlXkQpov, 214 
nXci'par, 200 
TiXr)dovca dyopa, 32 
nX-^rpo;/, 217 

TTXivBiov, 197 
nXdra/<off, 208 
nXouroy, 118 
TiXovruiv, 91 

nw|, 32, 183 
ndj £f , 202 
TioiKiXri, 31 
UoiKiXia, 218 
Doxaff, 208 
noX£papxo ? , 181, 190, 

192, 196 
TioXias, 29, 105 
IIoXTrai, 178 
noXvdi^Jptoj/, 223 
TioXvKEara, 218 
noX^yta, 126 
IloX^dpot, 204 
UojiTral, 183 

rio//7r£roi/, 31 

Tidrrava, 148, 163 
TiopBpLiov, 221 
ndp7raf£j, 194 
IleMra&w, 61 
TIouei6mv, 98 
novj, 214 
UpaKTopz Sl 183, 185 



310 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



nparfcis, 181, 197 
Tlpeopus, 190 
UpoavXwv, 210 
UpoPXijpara, 153 
npo0o\al, 210 
UpopovXevfia, 183, 188 
Ilpoypappa, 188 
Tlpoyvjxvaap.ara, 174 
JIpoSiKoi, 190 
ITp(5(5o//oj, 210 
UpoSoaia, 186 
TlpoEdpia, or npoeSpa 
187,191, 199 
Tlp6eipot, 183, 184 
IIpo>jpdrna, 112 
ITpoiwoo, 220 
lipoid ,' 220 
ITpoKw^oj, 202 
ripopsr&rri&a, 194 
npofrvia, 207 
np(Jf£i/oi, 190, 207 

TLponoXoi Oecjv, 163 
Upono/m, 206 
npoTroXaua, 29, 160, 

178 
Tipo(TK£<pa\aia, 206 
IIpoa66ia t 162 
IXpoord-)??, 178 
TipoorrEpviSta, 194 
IIpocrco.Tit'o!', 176 
UpoTiOeiTdai, 221 
Hporoj/oi, 202 
Hpo<prjrai, 166 
UpoipvXaKcii , 197 
Ilpoxooff, 212 
ITpo^i'pa, 204 
Ylpowp.OGia, 185 
npfiftyo, 200 
Upvp.vfi<Tia, 202 
npwravcta, 113, 182, 

185 
Ilpvrama, 184 
Upwamw, 33, 184 
UpvTavsis, 183, 184, 

188 
UpvTavIs, 192 
npwpa, 200 
npwpdr/yj, 203 
IlpwpetJj, 203 
Ilrap/ioi, 168 
Ilrfpa, 200 
Ilrspvyiov, 200 
Tlrvxk, 200 
Uvaveipiwv, 60 
Iluyp/?, 173 
HvOcuorai, 174 
n«9ia, 165 
UvOta, 174 
IIv&iko'j ^o^of, 174 
Uvdioi, 190 
IMSiw, 165 
FKfcoy, 101, 165 
nvdavcs, 167 
IK/rnrc, 173 
Uvlayopat, 183 
IlwXoia, 183 
Uv\r,, 210 

niip, 187 

Ilvpa, 149 
Uvpyo s , 197, 198 



Ilyp/caia, 186 
Ilupd/JoXoi, 196 
riypo^aiTEia, 167 
Ylvp<p6poi, 198 
IIwioj, 166 
JlwXiJrflU, 182 
IlcSpa, 153 



'PaPSo/xavTEia, 167 
•Pd/?&>5, 260 
'PaPdoSxpt, 173 
'Pfyavoi, 206 
"Pfl0is, 218 
'PlTOpeg, 181 
'Pijrpai, 191 
'Pafycunri&s, 199 
'Pii/zif, 173 
'Poddwj, 218 
'Pododu/crvXoj, 115 
'PoSov mo, 206 
'Pi5p.ara, 202 
'Pvjjlos, 212 
Torw, 207, 297 



Sayw, 158 
Say/xix, 194 
SdXTTiyyef, 198, 217 
2aX7riy*T>7j, 196 
SdXTrtyJ, 217 
•Za^vKr,, 217 
Sap-i', 214 
ZavdaXa, 208 
Sarif, 187 
Sdpiao-a, 196 
ZapKixpayos, 221 
Vtpaara, 246 
2£«rfy0coj/, 98 
Zeio-rpov, 217 
SeXnvi?, 101, 114 
ZsXtiw, 175 
SeXXoi, 164 
"ZrJKOv, 212 
Sij/tdf, 160, 170, 222 
5% a. 222 
Sij/ieia, 198 
'Zrjp.EiOtpopos, 196 
Zi&uvai, 189 
"Zirdpiov, 214 
Yirriaig zv irpwavEio), 

187 
SiroSsia, 212 
Zitoookou, 212 
StrOTrwXat, 212 
Sitos, 212 
"ZirofvXaKE; , 212 
Sirco, 112 
Strwj/ai, 212 
5>aXpot, 202 
2/cdpp.a, 172 
2.Ka(pr)(popoi, 171 
HkeXyj pa/cpd, 29 
Sranj, 222 
S«i5)j, 200 
"Zkyivy), 176 
SK-fjwrpov, 150 
Yxta5ri(popia, 180 
Y.Kia&rityopot, 172 
2/aay, 190 



JlKiWa, 163 
"ZKiOfxavTEia, 167 
Swpow, 128 
"EKif'pcxpopiiov, 61 

SwXioj/, 207 

ZKOirdg, 172 
SXuXa, .199 
S/ri5X<4, 163 
SfurdX?/, 199 
SfurdXia, 196 
SoXoj, 173 
Sopoi, 221 
Zopoj, 123, 302 
^izapriov, 214 
27n')Xaicw, 222 
Hmdapn, 214 
£7rXrtyYi/oovc07ria, 163 
S7rXay^j'do-^07rOf, 163 
SttoAoj, 162 
27rov<5a!, 147 
Stoj^, 163, 197 
~Zra6io6p6poi, 172 
SrdiJtov, 32, 172 
SrdXi/0£y, 158 
Yrctrrip, 213 
Zraupdf, 187 
Srci'pi7, 200 
Xr£p.para, 147, 163 
Sr£0ai'/j0dpoj, 171 
Hrecpavoi, 187 
Urccpavog, 148, 191 
Ert'fpoj, 148 
XrijXat, 222 
Zri}X»j, 149, 187 
Srrjp&w, 218 
Srfypa, 180, 187 
-Zt'ixoi, 197 
YrixopavTsia, 167 
SrXsyyk, 210 
5>oa paxpa, 33 
Zroat, 31 
SrdXapXOf, 203 
SroXn, 209 
2,t6Xo s , 200 
Hrparriyia, 196 
2>paT-r?yo?^190, 193, 

196, 203 
Hrparta, 196 
'2.TpaT0Kripv%, 196 
£rpoyyi3X»7, 116 
2rp6(piov, 209 
T.Tpu>ixaT<x, 206 
Svyycjeto, 220 
2uyy£i/£(j, 220 
Zifew, 212 
HvKO<pavria, 186 
Ymotyavrai, 186 
■SvtfoXa, 168, 197, 

198, 207 
St>p/?oX>j, 206 
~Lvp.l3uip.oi, 160 
Hvpnax'ia, 197 
"Evppoptat, 182 
Yvp-rroaia, 207 
'ZvymoaiapXOi , 206 
Ymv&ikoi, 181 
Xwjjyopoi, 181, 185 
HwOfiKr,, 197 
YvvOfipaTa, 198 
Si5waoj, 160 



SvW(30ff ' ApL(plKTVOV())V , 

183 

SuvoiKErai, 160 
"LvvTayiia, 196 
S»piy£, 217 
Swfftrta, 190, 206 
S^ayfroi', 148 
X^ayjy, 148 
S'poupa, 216 
2(pEvS6vri, 153 
SXfi^'ot, 200 
Uxoivofidrai, 202, 244 
So>»ia, 202 
Swrfipa, 2wri?p, 29 

T 
Ta«i/ia, 209 
Ta^rtwi, 197 
TdXavrov, ^.3 
TdXfpot, 221 
Tapiiai twv hptiv, 162, 

182 
Ta/ii'oj, 203 
Tan'ia; TrpoaoSov, 182 

rav QEcopiKuiv, 176 
T«yD7rr£puy£f, 167 
Tafiapxot, 196 
Tariff, 196 
Td0o ffj 222 
Tey£0£, 210 
TeQpnnmi, 172 
T£i%o? j/drtov, &C. 31 
TfXa^wv, 194 
TfXEffo-tyapof, 106 
T£X£77), 163, 169 
T£X) 7 , 181 
T£Xo f , 196, 197 
TeXuvcxi, 182 
Tifievos, 160, 162 
Tip/xrx, 172 
TEpipixopn, 126 
TEo-aapoLKOvra, 186 
TerpaeTripis, 60 
TfrpaXoyia, 171 
Tfrpuwpot, 172 
Terprjpeis, 202 
Tcrpu/36'Xov 0ios, 193 
Tirrty^, 208 
T(p>?para, 181, 186 
Toixapxos, 203 
ToZxot, 200 
To Kati/dv, 186 
Tdjuoupoi, 165 
Tdfov, 153 
T^drcu, 181 
To^o0dpo ? , 101, 102 
Tojreta, 202 
Tpdm^a SsvTEpa, 206 
Tpdm^aj, 222 
Tpa7T£^07rotdj, 207 
Tpd0i;f, 200 
Tp>'?para, 200 
TpioK&Sss, 177, 188, 

222 
Tpiofas, 173 
Tpifi^viov, 209 
TpiyuwH/, 186, 217 

'TpiETEpiKOl, 174 

Tpiripapxia, 182 
Tpu7papxoi, 182, 203 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



311 



TpirjpavXris, 203 
Tpiijpeis, 154, 200,202 
TpuctyciXos , 109 
TpiKXiviov, 206, 210 
Tpc>p</>oj, 102 
TpinoScs, 149 
TpinovsXPW r fiP lo S, 165 
TpiTO, 222 
'Tpiroykvtia, 104 
Tpirrveg, 189 
Tpixopfos, 216 
Tptwdm?, 102 
Tpdirawv, 149, 199 
TpdTTfj, 200 
TpdTroi, 202 
Tpo^oj, 187, 263 
Tpwrava, 198 
Tfy/foj, 222 
Tvjx-Kava, 187 
Hvpjtavov, 217 
Two j, 263 
Ttto, 118 

Y 

"YaXo f , 263 
"Y/?p£w s #«j, 180 
'X6pa\hr\q, 264 
"YJpauXtj, 217 
'Ydpiacpopia, 180 
'rdpioKpopoi, 172 
'XipojxavTcia, 167 
'YdpooiropSa, 147 
'Xdpoipopoi, 207 
TXXeif, 188 
'Xiievatoi, 220 
•Ypews, 220 
'Yi/wj, or "Ymj, 212 
•YTrepat, 202 
'Ywpwa, 210 
'YmiKOot, 192 
•Yrojpenjs, 180, 196 



"Yjtwjs, 130 
'Yndyaia, 222 
'YnoypapnanTs, 182 
'Y7»%ora, 208 
'Yffo^wpara, 200, 201 
'Y7rd/cauo-roj/, 210 
'YnoKpiral, 176 
'Y-KOfieioveg, 188 
'Yno/xvoaia, 185 
'YrrwTia, 173 

^ati/fistta, 216 
<S>a»/dX>7?, 209 
*a*ai, 206 
<I?aXayyapX'a, 196 
*dXay|, 196, 197 
&a\apa, 194 
&a\r;pdi>, 33 
<J>dX/ay, 200 
3>dXo?, 153 
<?>di/ra<Tpa, 167 
^aperpa, 153 
Qapnaxa, 168 
<J?ap//a/caa, 168 
^>dpjxaKov, 186, 187 
3>a> ? , 157, 208 
•i'ao-if, 186 
4>£yytri?ff, 290 
4>£«5ir<a, 190 
<J>ep£rpoi/, 149, 221 
Gepvii, 220 
<I>d5ya>i/, 185 
<i>fjpai, 168 
<£>?p>7, 118 
*ftu s , 170 
<Z>td\r,, 207 
*taXife, 221 

3>t\flTOp£ S , 220 

*tXjna, 190 
^>i\ou.£iofjs, 106 



*tXdfew», 207 
<*>d/^, 208 
®o0riTG)p, 130 
*o?/?oj, 100 

&ovikG)v, 'E7TI TCOf , 185 
<J>di/oj, 186 
<t>dppiy£, 216 
<t>dpo<, 181 
<t>opr>7yoi, 200 
<£parpia<, 177, 189 
QparpiKa, 206 
cppeara, 32 
<f>pfarroi, 'Ev, 185 
3>puyfoi/ft>i/ tpyov, 218 
<J>»y>?, 187, 191 
*wXat, 177, 178 
3E>v\aKa\, 197 
4>vXdpxw, 194 
^iiXapxot, 181, 196 
^vkofiaaiXeTs, 185 
<J>t3(tk>7, 206 
<£>coviKa, 198 



Xotn;, 208 
XaX^ra, 107, 171 
XaX/aojKOj, 36 
XoXwws, 213 
Xapurrfipia, 163 
Xdpir£ ? , 127 
Xelp <n<fypc<, 203 
Xffporoi^roi, 180, 183 
Xeiporovia, 182, 183 
XsXEiJffpara, 200 
XeXuvri, 198 
Xepi/i;//, 148 
Xr)vlaKOg, 200 
XiXiap^ux, 196 
XiXiapxot, 196 
Xiiw, 157, 208 
Xircom, 102 



X\arva, 157. 208 
XXai/if, 209 
XX«fcw, 209 
Xoai. 147, 149, 222 
XoXvii, 187, 214 
Xopri/ia, 182 
Xopr/yoi, 182 
Xopd f , 176 
Xovg, 214 
Xpf///o, 213 
Xpf)\xaTa BswpiKa, 176 
XpTjparfo-pdj, 167 
Xpr/o-poi, 164 
Xpr}Cjxo\6yoi, 164 
Xpr\ajxO(p6poi, 164 
Xprjarfipia, 164 
Xpifiara, 210 
Xpiordj, 272 
Xpdj/o f , 91 
Xwpa, 149,198, 222 



yuXrJjpioj/, 217 
*eXXioi/, 209 
Vrftttrpa, 183, 188 
t#o(, 183 
*£a0io, 186 
¥i0i>pa, 217 
*iXoi, 153, 194 
VvxopavTeia, 167 
¥Worao-ia, 100 

n 

'fl/?oi, 188 
'$2<5£?oi/, 32 
'ilJt/cat, 167 
"ilia, 210 
' SLjxoQ£ts7.v , 148 
'iloGKonia, 167 
"ilpai, 117, 127 
'SlpaTa, 168 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Ablecti, 277, 278 
Accensi, 252, 276 
Accipe libens, 238 
Accubita, 291 
Accusator, 259 
Acerra, 232, 239 
Acetabulum, 268 
Acidalia, 106 
Acies, 275, 282 
Acinaces, 100 
Aclides, 281 
Actia, 26 
Actiones in personam, 

in rem, 259 
Actius, 101 
Actor, 259 
Actuarial 283 
Actuarii, 252 
Actus quadratus, 268 
Ad bestias, ad ludos, 

&c, 260 
Addictus, 267 
Adjudicatio, 268 
Admovere, 237 
Adonia, 106 
Adoptio, 288 
Adoratio, 237 
Adrastia, 117 
Adscriptitii, 87, 276 
Adulterii crimen, 260 
Advocatus, 259 
Adytum, 230 
iEcastor, 136 
^Edepol, 136, 239 
JEdes sacrse, 117, 230 
^Ediles. 19, 246, 219 
JEditui, 236 
JE%eor\, 125 
iEgis, 104 
Aello, 128 
iElurus, 124 
^Enea fistula, 263 
iEneatores, 274 
iEolus, 116 
^Erarium, 256, 261 
Africus, 128 
Agaso, 278 
Agelas, 189 
Agger, 15, 280, 281 
Agmen quadratum, 

pilatum, &c. 278 
Agmine, uno conti- 

nente, 276 
Agnomen, 286 
Agonalia, 241 
Agone, 237 
Agoraeus, 109 
Agrimensores, 264 
Agrotera, 
Alas, 276 
Alba linea, 243 
Alba Longa, 11 
Alecto, 128 
Ales, 109 
Aliptae, 293 
Alites, 233 
Altaria, 230 
Alveus, 282, 295 
Amanuensis, 289 
Amaracinum, 299 
Amaracus, 107 
312 



Ambarvalia, 112, 236, 

241 
Ambitus crimen, 260 
Ambrosia, 109 
Amentum, 173 
Amiculum, 298 
Amor, 106 
Amphigyeis, 107 
Amphitheatra, 19 
Amphitrite, 98, 125 
Amphora, 268, 296 
Amtruare, 235 
Anadyomene, 106 
Anagnostae, 289 
Anchora, 282 
Ancile, 94, 235 
Ancilia, 105 
Anclabris,230 
Anculee, 120 
Anculi, 120 
Andabatae, 244 
Angusticlavia, 256,298 
Anima mundi, 116 
Annales, 233 
Annuli, 299 
Annulus aureus, 256 
Antefixa, 263 
Antennae, 2S2 
Anteros, 107 
Antesignani, 276 
Antestatio, 259 
Antistites, 236 
Anubis, 124 
Aonides, 126 
Apaturia, 109 
Apes, 264 
Apex, 233, 235 
Apis, 123 
Aplustria, 282 
Apodyterium, 293 
Apotheca, 296 
Apotheosis, 137, 304 
Apparitores, 252 
Aprilis, 61 
Aquaeductus, 19 
Aquilo, 128 
Ara, 230 
Aratores, 289 
Aratrum, 264 
Arbiter bibendi, 295 
Arbitri causarum, 259 
Arbori suspendere,260 
Area, 302 
Arcarius, 289 
Archigallus, 94, 236 
Archimagiri, 295 
Archimimus, 300 
Arcula thuraria, 232 
Arcus triumphales, 19 
Area, 264 
Arena, 247 
Areopagus, 32 
Argentarii, 263 
Argiva, 96 
Aries, 281 
Armamenta, 282 
Armamentum Chirur- 

gicum, 294 
Armaria, 290 
Armiger, 289 
Armillae, 275, 300 
Armilustrium, 242 
Arrha hospitalis, 295 



Arrogatio, 288 

Ars figlina, 263 
pistoria, 263 
tinctoria, 264 

Arx, 17, 233 

As, 266 

Ascolia, 109 

Aspergillus), 232 

Aspersorium, 232 

Asseres falcati, 281 

Assertor libertatis, 289 

Assessores, 259 

Assipondium, 267 

Astraea, 117 

Astrologi, 240 

Asyla, 162 

Asylum, 17 

Atergatis, 106 

Athena, 105 

Atlantiades, 109 

Atlantides, 114, 134 

Atria, 254 

Atriensis, 289 

Atrium, 290, 291 

Atropos, 128 

Auctio, 268 

Auctores classici, 253 

Augurale, 278 

Auguratorium, 233 

Augures, 232, 233 

Augurium, 233, 240 

Augustales, 236 

August alia, 242, 246 

Augustus, 61 

Aula, 290 

Aulaeum, 246 

Aures, 264 

Aureus, 267 

Aurora, 114 

Aurum coronanum,284 

Auspices, 233 

Auspicium, 233 

Auster, 128 

Auxilia, 285 

Avena, 264 

Aversi, 302 

Aviarium, 292 

Avigerium, 233 



Bacchae, 110 
Bacchanalia, 168 
Bacchus, 109 
Balista, 281 
Balistarii, 276 
Balnea, 18, 293 
Balneator, 293 
Balneatores, 289 
Baphium, 264 
Barritus, 274 
Basilica;, 17, 18, 259 
Bassareus, 109 
Batillus, 264 
Batiolae, 297 
Baxa, 299 
Bellaria, 294 
Bellica, 105 
Bellona, 105, 120 
Berecynthia, 93 
Bes, 286 

Bestiarii, 244, 260 
Bibendi arbiter, 295 
Biceps, 93 



Bidens, 264 
Bifrons, 93, 267 
Bigs, 266 
Bimater, 109 
Bipennis, 232 
Bisellium, 254 
Bis millies, 267 
Bissextus, 62 
Boiae, 260 
Bombycina. 298 
Bombyx, 298 
Bona Dea, 93, 242 
Boreas, 116, 128 
Braccae, 209 
Brachia, 29, 282 
Brontes, 107 
Bubo, 233 
Bubona, 120 
Buccinae, 272 
Bulla, 299 
Buris, 264 

C. 

Caballi, 266 
Cabiri, 136 
Caduceus, 108, 124 
Caducifer, 109 
Cadus, 296 
Casrites, 10 
Caesia, 105 
Cassias, 128 
Calathus, 123 
Calcar, 266 
Calceus, 298 
Calceinigricoloris,256 
Calculi, 295 
Caldarium,293 
Calendae, 61 
Calices, 297 
Caligae, 298 
Calliope, 127 
Calones, 278 
Calumnia, 259 
Camarae, 283 
Camilla, 238 
Camilli& Camillas, 236 
Camillus, 239 
Caminus, 291 
CamcenEe, 126 
Campi, 16 
Campidoctores, 280 
Campus Martius, 16, 

105, 239, 259 
Campus sceleratus, 236 
Candelabra, 232, 291 
Candidati, 248 
Canens, 130 
Canis, 295 
Canistra, 232 
Canopus, 124 
Cantharus, 123 
Canus, 91 
Capedo, 232, 238 
Capeduncula, 232 
Capillamentum, 299 
Capillitia vota, 238 
Capis, 232 
Capite censi, 271 
Capite velato, 237 
Capitium, 298 
Capitolinus, 95 
Capitolium, 17 
Capsarii, 293 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



313 



Capsum, 266 

Capulum, 302 

Caput, 267 

Caput ccenje, 294 

Carceres, 243 

Cardines, 291 

Carenum, 296 

Carmen seculare, 244 

Carmentalia, 241 

Carmine certo evo- 
care, 239 

Carna Dea, 242 

Carnifex, 252 

Carpentum' 266 

Carptor, 2S9, 295 

Carruca, 266 

Casfe, 290 

Casa Romuli, 17 

Cassis, 274 

Castalia, 127 

Castalides, 126 

Castra stativa, hiber- 
na, &c. 278, 280 

Catapulta, 281 

Catastne, 289 

Catenae, 275i 

Catenae, 260 

Catenulae, 275 

Cathedra, 254 

Catomidiare, 235 

Caupona, 208 

Causa, 259 

Causae fidei bonae, 259 

Cavsedium, 290 

Cavea, 246 

Celaeno, 128 

Celeres, 270, 276 

Celiac, 291 

Cellaria, 291 

Cellarius, 289 

Cella sanctior, 230 

Cella vinaria, &c. 291, 
296 

Cenotaphia, 302 

Censores, 250 

Census, equester, 254 

Centauri, 131 

Centesima rerum ve- 
nal him, 262 

Centesima usura, 267 

Centies, 267 

Centimani, 113 

Centum sestertium,267 

Centumvirale judi- 
cium, 259 

Centurise, 272 

Centuriata Comitia, 
257, 259 

Centurio, 272 

Cerberus, 100, 132 

Cercopithecus,124 

Cereales, 246, 249 

Cerealia, 112, 242 

Ceres, 110 

Ceriti, 240 

Cerussa, creta, 299 

Cessio, in jure; extra 
jus, 268 

Cestus, 106 

Chaldaei, 240 

Charybdis, 132 

Chimfera, 131, 132 

Chirurgi, 277 

Chitone, 102 

Chlamys, 298 

Chloris, 120, 242 

Cibum, 294 

Cilliba, 291 

Cinerarii, 289 

Cinerarium, 302 

Cingula, 96 

Cingulum, 266 
Cingulum laneum, 2S7 
Cippi, 302 
40 



Cippus, 302 

Circi, 18 

Circuitio vigilum, 280 

Circulus auri, 299 

Circus Flaminius, Sal- 

lustius, &c. 243 
Circus Maximus, 18,242 
Cisium, 266 
Cista, 270 
Gives, 258 

Civitates fcederatse,258 
Clarigatio, 234 
Classiarii, 282 
Classici, 253 
Classicum, 274, 282 
Classis, 282 
Clathri, 290 
Claustra, 291 
Claves, 291 
Claviger, 93 
Clavus, 282, 298 
Clavus figendus, 242 
Clepsydra, 60, 240 
Clientela, 254 
Clima, 268 
Clio, 127 
Clitellae, 266 
Clitellarii, 266 
Cloacae, 19 
Clotho, 128 
Clusius, 93 
Ccelus, 113, 116 
Caemptio, 286 
Ccena, 293 
Ccenacula, 293 
Coena nuptialis, 287 
Ccena recta, 295 
Ccenationes, 293 
Coeus, 124 
Cognomen, 285 
Conors, 271 
Cohortes vigitum, 284 
Coliseum, 19, 247 
Collegia fabrorum, tig- 

nariorum, &c, 263 
Collegium, 232 
Collina, 120 
Collis hortulorum, 16 
Coilocatio, 300 
Coloni, 290 
Colonize, 258 
Colossus, 42 
Colum, 296 
Columbar, 260 
Columbaria, 303 
Columella, 291 
Columnae, 19 
Columna lactaria, 287 
Columnarium, 262 
Colus, 287 

Comes diceceseos, 285 
Comites, 285 
Comitia, 234, 257, 259 
Compitales, 129 
Compitalia, 129, 242 
Compluvium, 290 
Comus, 119 
Concilia, 257 
Conciones, 257 
Conclamatio, 300 
Concordia, 122, 242 
Condere lustrum, 239 
Condictio, 259 
Conditorium, 302 
Confarreatio, 286, 287 
Congius, 268 
Conjectores, 240 
Connubium, 286, 290 
Conquisitio, 271 
Conquisitores, 252 
Conscriptio, 271 
Consecratio, 238, 304 
Consentes, 87 
Consivius, 93 



Constitutiones, 261 
Constratum navis, 282 
Consuales, 246 
Consualia, 98,242 
Consulares, 285 
Consul designatus, 248 
Consules, 248 
Consus, 98 
Conticinium, 60 
Contubernales, 278 
Contubernium,2S0,286 
Conventio in maiium, 

286 
Coqui, 295 
Corbes, 295 

Corneumspeculare,290 
Cornicines, 274 
Cornicula,275 
Comix, 233 
Cornu,217 
Cornua,272,282 
Corona, 280, 303 
Corona castrensis,mu- 

ralis, civica, &c. 

274, 275 
Corona, emptio sub, 

268 
Corpus, 262 
Correctores, 285 
Corrigia, 298 
Cortina, 247 
Corus, 128 
Corvus, 233, 281, 282 
Corybantes, 94 
Cosmeta,289 
Cosmi, 191, 192 
Cothurni, 299 
Cotytto, 119 
CovinuS; 194 
Crater, 297 
Crates, 250 
Crepidae, 299 
Crepundia, 287 
Creta, 299 
Cribrum, 113 
Crimen majestatis, 

peculatus,252,259, 

260 
Crista, 274 
Crius, 124 
Crotala, 218 
Cruci affigere, 260 
Cubicula^Ql 
Cubicularii, 289 
Cubiculum, 247 
Cucullus, 298 
Cudo,274 
Culcita, 291 
Culeus, 260,268 
Culina, 291 
Culter, 264 

Cultrarius, 232, 236,237 
Cultri, 232 
Cultrum, 104 
Culullus,232 
Cumerum,287 
Cunaria,289 
Cunei, 247 
Cuneus, 196, 275 
Curatores aquarum, 19 
Curias, 17, 18, 236, 252 
Curia Saliorum,235 
Curiones, 232, 236 
Currus, 266 
Cursus, 243 
Curules,249 
Custos, 93 
Cyathus, 268, 297 
Cybele, 93, 112 
Cyclas, 298 
Cyllenius, 109 
Cyllopodes, 107 
Cymbia, 297 
Cynocephali, 124 
2D 



Cynthia, 102 
Cynthius, 101 
Cypria, 106 
Cytherea, 106 

D. 

Damnum, 260 
December, 61 
Decemviri, 251 
Decennalia, 238 
Decreta, 261 
Decumae, 262 
Decunx, 266 
Decuriae, 259, 272, 277, 

2S8 
Decuriones, 258, 263 

276, 288 
Dedicatio templi, 238 
Defrutarium. 296 
Defrutum, 296 
Delectus, 271 
Delia, 102 
Delius, 101 
Delphicus, 101 
Delphinus, 101 
Delu brum, 230 
Demarchi, 181 
Demensunx, 274 
Denarius, 267 
Dens, 264 
Dentale, 264 
Deportatio, 260 
Designatores, 247 
Detersor, 289 
Detestatio sacrorum, 

288 
Deunx, 266 
Deus, 95 
Devotio, 239 
Devovere, 239 
Dexter, 233 
Diana, 101, 114 
Diana Bubastis, 124 
Dianus, 93 
Dicatio, 238 
Dicere diem, 259, 271 
Dictator, 251 
Dictynna, 102 
Dies comitiales, 257 

festi, fasti, &c. 241 
Diespiter, 95 
Diffarreatio, 287 
Digitus, 268 
Dii majorum et mino- 

rum gentium, 87 
Diis Manibus, 302 
Dionysia, 109 
Dioscuri, 135 
Dioscuria, 136 
Diota, 213, 296 
Dirae, 233 
Diribitor, 289 
Diribitores, 257 
Disci, 232 
Disci jactus, 243 
Dispensator, 289 
Divortia, 287 
Divus, 304 
Dodrans, 266 
Dolabra, 232, 264 
Dolia,296 
Dominium, 2fi8 
Dominus, 288 
Domus,20, 290 
Dona, 302 
Dona militaria, 274 
Donaria,230 
Donatio, 268 
Donativa, 274 
Doris, 98' 
Druida3,237 
Dryades, 126 
Duces, 285 
Dulciarius, 289 



314 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 






Duodena scripta, 295 
Duplex acies, 275 
Duplicarii, 274 
Duumviri, 233, 239,252, 

258, 259, 261, 232 
Dux, 278 
Dyndymena, 93 

E. 

Echidna, 132 
Edicta, 261 
Edictum, 219, 256 
Edictum perpetuum, 

249 
Editor, 244 
Egeria, 96, 230 
Eiaeothesium, 293 
Elatio, 300 
Eleusinia, 112 
Elicius, 95 
Elysium, 99 
Emeriti, 275 
Emeritum, 275 
Emptio sub corona, 268 
Enceladus, 125 
Enclahris, 230 
Ensis falcatus, 196 
Enyalius, 105 
Ephialtes, 125 
Ephippia, 266 
Epibatae, 232 
Epidelius, 101 
Epilaenia, 109 
Epistols, 261 
Epitaenia, 109 
Epitaphium, 302 
Eoithalamia, 287 
Epulae, 234 
Epuiares, 234 
Epulones, 232, 234 
Epuium Jovis, 242 
Equestris, 118 
Equites, 214, 253, 278, 

293 
Equo publico merere, 

256 
Erato, 127 
Erigone, 117 
Erycina, 106 
Erynnis, 112 
Essedae, 194 
Essedarii, 244 
Euripus, 247 
Eurus, 116, 128 
Euryale, 130 
Euryphaessa, 114 
Euterpe, 127 
Evocati, 278 
Excubke, 280 
Exequise, 300 
Exercitus, 280 
Exilium, 260 
Exostra, 246 
Expediti, 276 
Exponere infantem, 

287 
Exsequiae, 300 
Exta muta, 234 
Extispices, 233 
Extispicium, 240 
Extraordinarii, 251,277 
Extremum, 257 



Fabiani, 235 
Fabri,277 
Fabricoe, 280 
Fabrum, 253 
Factiones, 243 
Fagina, 297 
Falarica, 281 
Falces murales, 231 
Falcifer, 91 
Falcula, 264 



Falsi crimen, 260 

Falsum, 239 

Falx, 264 

Fama, 118 

Familia, 285,288 

Familiar jus, 258 

Familiares, 129 

Fanatici, 240 

Fanum, 230, 240 

Far, Farina, 264 

Fasces, 232, 218 

Fasciae, 299 

Fascinatio, 24 

Fascinum, 119, 210 

Fascinus, 119 

Fasti Annales, 241 
Consulares, 241 
dies, 241 
Kalendares, 241 

Fastigium 291 

Fauna, 130 

Faunalia, 241,242 

Fauni, 130 

Faunus, 130 

Febris, 120 

Februa, 61, 100 

Februarius, 61 

Februatio, 241 

Februus, 100 

Feciales, 232, 234 

Femoralia, 299 

Fenestra?, 290 

Feralia, 241 

Ferentarii, 276 

Feretrius, 95 

Feretrum, 302 

Feriae, 241 

Feriae Latinae, 11, 241 

Feronia, 120 

Ferreae manus, 282 

Ferula, 260 
Festi dies, 241 
Festum mercatorum, 

109, 242 
Fibulae, 275 
Fictile, 263, 297 
Fides, 122 
Fides Graeca, 164 
Fidicines, 236 
Figlina, 263 
Figulus, 263 
Fiscinae corbes, 295 
Fiscus, 261 
Flabellifer, 239 
Flagellis, 260 
Flagellum,104,260,266 
Flamines, 232, 235, 298 
Flaminiae, 236 
Flaminica, 235 
Flaminii, 236 
Flarnmeum!uteum,287 
Flora, 120, 242 
Floralia, 120, 242, 216 
Flumina inferorum, 25 
Foculi, 291 
Focus, 291 
Foederatae civitates, 

258 
Fcenisectores, 289 
Fcenum, 264 
Foe n us, 267 
Fontinalia, 242 
Fora, 17 

Foramina, 282, 290 
Forda, 242 
Fordicidia, 242 
Forfex 275 
Fori, 242 
Formae,263 
Fortuna, 118, 303 
Fortuna Fortis, 242 

virilis, 242 
Forum, 17, 259, 302 
For us, 295 



Fossa, 280 
Frcenum, 266 
Fratres Arvales, 232, 

236 
Fraus, 122 
FrL'idarium, 293 
Fritillus, 295 
Frumentarii, 277 
Fucus, 299 
Fulcra, 291, 294 
Fulguratores, 234 
Fullo, 264 
Fullonica, 264 
Fullonium, 264 
Fumarium, 296 . 
Funanibuli, 244 
Funditores, 276 
Funes, 260, 282 
Funus indictivnm, 

publicum, 300 
Furiae, 128 
Furina, 128 
Furinalia, 128, 242 
Fuscina, 244 
Fustuarium, 275 

G. 

Gaia, 93, 112 
Galea, 274 
Galericulum, 299 
Galerus, 233, 274 
Galli, 94,232, 236 
Gallicinium, 60 
Gallinarii, 289 
Gallinarium,292 
Gallus, 233 
Ganvmedes, 96 
Gausape, 293 
Gemoniae, 260 
Genethliaci, 240 
Genii, 129 

Genio indulgere, 129 
Gens, 285 
Gens togata, 297 
Gentilitia, 2S8 
Gladiatores, 244 
Gladius, 274 
Gladius et hasta, 219 
Glaucus, 93 
Globus, 275 
Gradivus Mars, 105 
Gradus,247 
Gratiae, 127 
Greges, 243 
Grus,28l 

Gubernaculum, 282 
Gubernator, 282 
Gustus, Gustatio, 294 
Guttus, 232 

H. 

Habense, 266 

Hades, 99 

Haereditas, 268 

Halcyoneus, 125 

Hamadryades, 126 

Harioli, 240 

Harpagones, 282 

Harpocrates, 124 

Haruspices, 232, 233, 
237 

Haruspicina, 231 

Hasta pura, 274 
sanguinea, 234 
velitaris, 274 
venire sub, 268 

Hastae, 274 

Hastati, 271, 274, 276, 
278 

Hebdomades, 61 

Hebe, 96 

Hecate, 101, 102 

Helisea, 186 

Heliastae, 181 



Heliconiades, 126 
Helius, 100, 114 
Hemina, 263 
Heraclid®, 188 
Hercules, 134 
Hermae, 109 
Hermanubis, 124 
Hermes, 108 
Hesperides, 134 
Hilaria, 91,236,241 
Hippocrene, 127, 131 
Hippocrenides, 126 
Hippodromi, 18 
Hippolytus, 98 
Hippona, 120 
Histriones, 300 
Hocage, 237 
Holocaustum, 238 
Honor, 122 
Honorati. 249 
Horce, 117, 127, 240 
Hora hiberna, brevi 

sima, 240 
Hordeum, 264 
Horologium, 60 
Hortator, 282 
Hortus, 292 
Horus, 122, 124 
Hospes, 295 
Hostiae, 237 
Hydra, 131 
Hydraulis,217 
Hygeia, 117, 118 
Hyperion, 114, 124 
Hypogaea, 303 



Iapetus, 124 
Iasminum, 299 
Idaea, 93 
Idalia, 106 
Ignis, 113 

Ignominia, 251, 260 
Ilithyia, 96, 102 
Illustres, 256 
Imagines, 302 
Immolare, 237 
Impedimenta, 277 
Imperator, 257 
Imperium, 283 
Impluvium, 290, 291 
Inanes tumuli, 302 
Inauguratio, 238 
Inaures, 299 
Incubatio, 166 
Indigetes, 87 
Inducula, 244 
Indusium, 297 
Infamia, 260 
Inferiae,304 
Infundibulum, 264 
Ingenui, 285 
Ino, 125 
Insigne, 2S2 
Instita, 298 
Insulae, 291 
Intercedere, 250 
Intercisi dies, 241 
Interdictus, 260 
Interrex, 251 
Interula,298 
Inuus, 116 
Inventor, 95 
Invidia, 122 
Iris, 96, 115 
Irpex, 264 
Isia, 123 
Isis, 122 
Itio in partes, 256 

J. 

Jactus Veneris, 295 
Jaculat.ores, 276 
Janua, 93, 290, 291 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



315 



Januarius, 61 

Janus, 18, 93, 267 

Janus bifrons, 267 

Judices assessores,259 

Judicia, 259 

Juga, 96 

Jugarii,239 

Jugerum,268 

Jugum, 261, 266 

Julii, 235 

Junius, 61 

Juno, 96 

Caprotina, 242 
Moneta, 242 
Sospita, 2U 

Junnnalia, or Junonia, 
96 

Junones, 96 

Jupiter, 94 ; Termina- 
lis, 119; Latiaris, 
2S4;Infernus, 100; 
Maimactes, 212 

Jura provinciarum, 
praefecturarum, 
&c. 258 

Juramentum, 239 

Jurare conceptis ver- 
bis, 239 

Juris interpretes, 250 

Jus iElianum,261 
civitatis, &c. 258 
Flavianum, 261 
honorarium, 249 

261 
hospitii 295 
imaginum, 254 
Latii or Latinita- 

tis, 258 
militiae, 258, 271 
Papirianum, 261, 
Pontificium, 241 
Quiritium, 258,286 

Jusjurandum, 239 

Juturna, 120 

Juvenales, 246 

K. 

Kalendae, 61, 240 
Kalendarium, 241 
Kinura, 217 



Labarum, 272 
Labyrinthus, 43 
Lacerna, 298 
Lachesis, 128 
Lachrymae, 302 
Lacryniales, 303 
Lacus, 19,296 
Lama, 233, 235, 298 
Lancese, 274 
Lances, 232, 294 
Lanificium, 264 
Lanista, 244 
Lapis Albanus, 303 

specularis, 290 
Lapithae, 131 
Laquearia, 290 
Lararium, 129 
Lares, 129, 291 
Lares Praestites, 242 
Larvae, 129 
Laterculus, 278 
Lateres coctiles, 263 
Latialis, 95 
Laticlavia, 256, 298 
Latomiae, 40 
Latona, 116 
Latus clavus, 256 
Laudatio, 302 
Lavatio Matris Deo- 

rum, 241 
Laverna, 120 
Lecti, 291 



Lectica,300 
Lecticarii, 289 
Lectistemia, 234, 239 
Lectisterniator, 289 
Lectus feralis, 309 
Lectus sunimus, me- 

dius. iinus, 293 
Legali,252,278 
Legem accipere, jube- 

re, abrogare, &c, 

261 
Leges asrrariae,&c., 261 

Curiatae, &c, 261 
Leeifera, 170 
Legitimus,288 
Lemnius, 107 
Lemures, 129 
Lemuria, 242 
Lethum, 130 
Leucanthes, 91 
Lex annalis, 248 

Atinia, 261 

Furia,261 

Julia, 2:6 

Poppcea, 286 

Porcia, 260, 283 
Liba, 238 
Libellus, 244 
Liber, 109 
Liberalia, 241 
Libertatis jus, 258 
Liberti, Libertini, 255 
Libertina, 106 
Libitinarius. 300 
Libra, 266, 270 
Librae, 266 
Librarii, 277, 289 
Libri Elephantini, 18 
Libs, 128 
Liburnicae, 2S3 
Lictores, 248, 252 
Ligo, 264 

Ligula, 232, 268, 298 
Limbus, 298 
Linguis favete, 237 
Lin urn, 264 
Litare, 234 
Litui, 272, 274 
Lituits, 232, 233, 274, 
Lixae, 277 

Locus consularis, 293 
Lora,260;subjugia,266 
Lorica, 274 
Lucaria, 241 
Lucernae, 291 
Luci, 18, 230 
Lucina, or Lucinia, 96, 

102 
Lucta, 243 
Luctus publicus, 304 
Ludi, 19 

Ludi Apollinares, 101, 
242, 246 

capitolini, 246 

circenses, 98, 101, 
242, 243 

florales, 246 

funebres, 304 

gladiatorii, 244 

magni, 212, 243 

megalenses, 246 

plebeii,242,216 

scenici, 246 

seculares, 102,243 

votivi, 246 
Ludii, 300 
Ludus, 244 
Ludus Magnus, &c.,l 19 

Trojae, 243 
Luna, 101, 114 
Lunatici, 210 
Luna patricia, 299 
Lunata acies, 2s2 

pellis, 299 



Lupercalia, 116,235,241 
Luperci, 232,235 
Lupercus, 116, 235 
Liistrationes. 239 
Lustrica,232 
Lustrum, 62, 239 
Lusus naturae, 110 
Lyaeus, 109 
Lycaeus, 116 
Lychnuchus, 291 
Lycius, 101 
Lydius lapis, 266 
Lymphati, 240 

M. 
Mactare, 237 
Maenalius, 116 
Maeniana,247 
Magister auctionum, 
233 

collegii, 233 

convivii, 295 

equitum, 251, 2S4 

militia?, 284 

navis, 282 

otficiorum,250,284 

pedilum, 284 

publicanorum, 262 

publicus, 234 
Magistralus, 251 
Maimactes, 212 
Mains, 61 
Majestatis crimen, 252, 

259 
Mala, 294 
Malleoli, 281 
Malleus, 232, 291 
Mai us, 282 
Mamurius, 235 
Manceps portuum, 262 
Mancipatio, 268 
Mancipia, 285 
Mandata, 261 
Manes, 129, 304 
Mangones, 289 
Mania, 129 
Manicae, 260 
Manicula, 264 
Manipulus, 272 
Mansio, 278 
Mantilia, 294 
Manumissio, 288,239 
Manus ferreae, 282 
Map pa, 294 
Marculi, 291 
Margaritae, 268 
Margines, 15 
Marina, 106 
Marra, 264 
Mars, 105 
Martiales, 246 
Martius, 61 
Materfamilias, 287 
Mathematics, 240 
Matralia, 242 
Matrimonium, 286 
Mausoleum, 20,48, 114, 

223 
Media Nox, 60 
Medicamina, 299 
Medici, 2S9 
Meditrinalia, 242 
Medusa, 104, 130 
Megaera, 128 
Megalenses, 246 
Mesralesia, 94, 241 
Mehercle, 239 
Mellona, 120 
Melpomene, 127 
Mensae, 291, 294 
Mensarii, 263 
Merisa sacra, 230 
Mensis intercalaris, 61 
Mephitis, 12, 120 



Mercatores, 263 
Mercatorum festum, 

109 
Mercurius, 108 
Metae, 243 
Metatores, 277 
Metopium,299 
Milites leves, 271 
Militias jus, 258,271 
Milliare, 268 
Milliarium aureum, 15 
Millies, &c, 267 
Minerva, 104 
Minium, 299 
Ministri, 236 
Mirmillones, 244 
Miscellanei dei, 87 
Missio, 244 
Mnemosyne, 124, 126 
Modius, 268, 282 
Mola, manuaria, asi- 

naria, &c. 264 
Mola salsa, 237 
Moles Hadriani, 20 
Molybdis, 282 
Momus, 119 
Moneta, 96, 242, 267 
Moni!ia,299 
Monopodium, 291,294 
Mons Palatums, &c, 16 
Monumenta, 302 
Morpheus, 130 
Mors, 130, 260 
Mortarium? 264 
Mulciber, 107 
Mnlcta,260 
Muliones, 289 
Mullei,299 
Munera, 244, 302 
Munia pacis et belli, 253 
Municipia, 258 
Murex, 297 
Murrha, or Murrhi- 

n urn, 263, 297 
Musculi, 281 
Musica, 105 
Mustum, 296 
Mutitatio, 295 
Mystagogi, 236 
Mythi, 83 

N. 
Nasnia, 138 
Neeniae, 300 
Naiades, 126 
Napaeae, 126 
Nardinum, 299 
Natalitia vota, 238 
Naturalis, 288 
Naumachiae, 19, 243 
Naumachiarii, 243 
Nautea, 282 
Navarchus,2S2 
Naves onerariae, lon- 

gae, rostratae, &c, 

2»2 
Navis praetoria, 282 
Nefasti,241 
Negotiatores, 263 
Nemesis, 117 
Neptunalia, 93, 242 
Nereides, 98, 126 
Nereus, 98 
Nervus, 260 
Neryx, 15 
Nexus, 267 
Niobe, 102 
Nobiles, 254 
Nobilitas Romana, 254 
Nomen,285 
Nomius, 101 
Nonae, 61 
Nota censoria, 251 

interior, 296 



316 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Notae interior, 296 
Notarii, 252 
Notus, 116, 128 
November, 61 
Novi homines, 254 
Nox, 115 

Nubenlis utensilia, 287 
Numerus legitimus,256 
Nummularii, 267 
Nummus, 267 
Nummus moduli max- 
im i, 266 
Nundinae, 61, 241 
Nuptiae justag, 286 
Nuptialis, 96 
Nuptialis co3na,287 
Nutritii, 289 
Nyctelius, 109 
Nymphaea, 19 
Nymphaaum, 126 

O. 

Obices, 291 
Obolus, 100 
Obsecrationes, 237 
Occa, 264 
Occator, 120 
Occatores, 289 
Occidens, 128 
Oceanus, 98, 124 
Ocreae, 244, 256, 274 
Octavae, 262 
October, 61 
Ocypeta, 128 
Odea, 19, 32, 33 
Odrysius, 105 
Oesipum, 299 
Olitorium, 17 
OII33 extares, 232 
Onager, 281 
Opaiia, 212 
Opeconsiva, 212 
Opigena, 96 
Opiliones, 289 
Ops, 93 
Oppidum, 225 
Optimus Maximus, 95 
Optio, 272 
Optiones, 276 
Opus incertum, 248 
Orationes principum, 

261 
Orbis, 278 
Orchestra, 246 
Orcus, 100 
Ordines, 271 
Ordinibus compressis, 

276 
Ordo equester, 254 

plebeitis, 253 
Oreades, 126 
Orion, 125 
Oscines, 233 
Oscophoria, 109 
Osiris, 122 
Ossilegium, 302 
Ostiarium, 262 
Ostiarius, 289 
Ostium, 290 
Otus, 125 
Ova, 294 
Ovatio. 284 
Ovile, 257 

P. 

Pabulum, 120 
Paedagogi, 288, 289 
Paenula, 29S 
Palatinus, 16 
Palatium, 16,20 
Pales, 120 
Palilia, 120, 242 
Palla, 298 
Palladium, 94, 104, 113 



Pallantins, 114 
Pallas, 105 
Palliati, 297 
Palmus,268 
Paludamentum, 298 
Pan, 116 

Pansetolium, 193 
Panathenasa, 104, 171 
Pancratium, 173 
Pandora, 107 
Panes, 130 
Panificium, 263 
Pantheon, 17 
Paphia, 106 
Paralus, 42 
Parcae, 128 • 
Pares, impares, tibiae. 

247 
Parilia, 120 
Parma, 244, 274 
Parnassides, 126 
Parricidii, '260 
Passus, 268 
Patareus, 101 
Patella, 232 
Patellarii, 129 
Patera, 96, 300 
Paterae, 232 
Pater fiduciarius, 2S8 

patratus, 234 
Patres conscripti, 256 

minorum gentium. 
253 
Patricii, 253 
Patrinae, 291 
Patronus, 259 
Patulcius, 93 
Pavimenta tessalata, 

290 
Pax, 122, 241 
Pecudes, 266 
Peculates, 252,260 
Peculium castrense, 

274 
Pecunia, 266 
Pedes, 282 
Pedicae, 260 
Pedites, 278 
Pegasus, 26, 131 
Pelopidae, 136 
Pelops, 136 
Peloria, 91 
Penates, 129 
Perduellionts, 260 
Peregrini,258 
Peregrini dii, 87 
Periosci, 189 
Peripetasmata, 291 
Peristromata, 291 
Perones,298 
Perpetuae quaestiones, 

259 
Perpol, 239 
Perseus, 133 
Perticffi, 264 
Pes, 268 
Pessinuntia, 93 
Petasus, 108, 298 
Petauristae, 244 
Petitio, 259 
Petitor, 259 
Petraeus, 98 
Phalarae, 275 
Phantasus, 130 
Phaseli, 283 
Phengites, 290 
Phialae, 297 
Phobetor, 130 
Phoebe, 102, 117,124 
Phorcus, 98 
Phylarchi, 181 
Phyx, 32 
Piaculum, 239 
Pierides, 126 



Pierus, 126 
Pietas, 122 
Pila, 274 
Pilentum, 266 
Pileus,290,298 
Pilumnus, 120 
Pilus primus, 272 
Pinacotheca, 291 
Pinarii, 232,235 
Piraeus, 31 
Piscarium, 17 
Piscatores, 289 
Piscatorii Ludi, 246 
Piscina mirabilis, 292 
Pistores, 263 
Pistrilla, 264 
Pistrinum, 264 
Pistum,264 
Plagii, 260 
Plaustra,266 
PlebeiiiEdiles^ig 
Plebiscita, 250,257, 261 
Plebs, 233 
Pleiades, 108 
Plutei, 281 
Pluto, 99 
Plutus, 119 

Pluvius or Pluvialis, 95 
Pnyx, 32 
Pocillator,289 
Pocula fagina, vitrea, 

&c, 297 
Podium, 247, 248 
Poecile, 31, 36 
Poems, 260 
Pol, 239 

Polias Minerva, 29, 104 
Policem premebant, 

vertebant, 244 
Pollinctores, 300 
Polus, 116 
Polyhymnia, 127 
Pomona, 119, 120 
Pompa circensis, 243 
Pons Milvius, JElius, 

&c, 16 
Pontes, 257 
Ponticuli,257 
Pontifex Maximus, 232 
Pontifices, 232 
Popae, 232, 236 
Popina, see Caupona. 
Popularia, 247 
Populonia, 96 
Populum calare, 231 
Populus, 253 
Porta preetoria, decu- 

mana, &c, 280 
Porta Carmentalis, 
&c, 15 

salutaris, 118 
Portenta,233 
Porticus milliaria, 19 
Portisculus, 282 
Portorium, 261 
Portumnalia, 242 
Portumnus, 125 
Postcenium, 246 
Postridiani, 2U 
Potamides, 126 
Potitii, 232, 235 
Praecinctiones, 247 
Praecones, 252 
Praedes, 259,262 
Praedia, rustica, urba- 

na, 268 
Praefecti, 277 
Praefecturae, 258 
Praefectus ./Egypti, 285 

annonse, 251,261 

classis, 281 

morum, 251 

praetorio, 284, 235 

urbis, 251, 2S5 



Praefericula, 232, 239 
Praeficae, 300 
Praegustator, 289 
Praemia minora, 275 
Praenomen, 285 
Prassides, 285 
Praestigiatores, 244 
Praesul, 235 
Praetor, 249, 259 
Praetorium, 278 
Prandium, 293 
Praia, 264 
Precationes, 236 
Precum arbitri, 250 
Prelum, 2«6 
Priapus, 119 
Primitiae, 238 
Principes,271,275,276 

278 
Principia, 278 
Proconsul, 252, 285 
Procurator, 244 
Procurator Caesaris 

252 
Prodigia, 233 
Prodigiaiores, 234 
Profesti, 241 
Projicere in profluen- 

tum, 260 
Promagister, 262 
Propraetor, 252 
Propylaea, 29 
Proquajstor, 252 
Prora, 282 
Proreta, 282 
Proscenium, 216 
Proscriptio, 268 
Proserpina, 106 
Proteus, 98 
Provinciae, 258 
Prytaneum, 184 
Psvlli,56 
Publicani, 262 
Publicum, 262 
Pugilatus, 243 
Pugna 3 , simulacra, 304 
Pullarius, 233 
Pulli, 233 
Pulmentarius, 289 
Pulpitum, 247 
Pulvinar, 294 
Pulvinaria, 237, 266 
Pulvinus, 293 
Punctum (omne tulil), 

270 
Puppis, 282 
Puteal, 17 
Puticuiae, 303 
Pylae Caspiae, 46 
Pylotis, 105 
Pyra, 302 
Pyramis Ceslii, 20 
Pyrakmon, 107 
Pvthius, 101 
Pyxis or Pyxidula, 300 

Q. 
Quadra ns, 266, 293 
Quadrantal, 296 
Quadrigae, 266 
Quadrigenaria, 272 
Quadriremes, 282 
Quaesitores, 259 
Quaestiones, 259 
Quaestor sacri palatii 

250, 285 
Quaestores, 250 
Quaestorium, 278 
Quartarius, 268 
Quaternio, 295 
Quinarius, 267 
Quincunx, 265, 275 
Quindecemviri, 236, 

240 






INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



317 



Quingenaria, 272 
Quinquatria, 104, 171, 

241, 242 
Quinquennia, 238 
Quinqueviri, 252 
Quintana via, 280 
Quintiliani, 235 
Quintilis, 61 
Quirinalia, 241 
Quirinales, 235 
Quirinus Mars, 105 
Quirites, 11, 16 
Quiritium jus, 258 

R. 

Rallum, 264 

Rastrum, 264 

Rectae viae, 275 

Rector, 282 

Recuperatores,259 

Regia, 233, 234 

Regina Sacrorum, 234 
Viarum, 16 

Relegatus, 260 

Religio, 229 

Religione solvere, 238 

Religiosi dies, 241 

Remancipatio, 287 

Remi, Remiges, 282 

Repetundarum cri- 
men, 252, 260 

Repositoria,294 

Repotia, 287 

Repudium, 287 

Rescripta, 261 

Res Mancipi, Nee 
Mancipi, 268 
privatae, 268 

Respublica, ne quid 
detrimenti capiat, 
251, 257 

Retiarii, 244 

Reus, 259 

Rex convivii, 295 
sacrificulus, 234 
sacrorum, 232, 234 

Rhamnensis, 252 

Rhamnusia, 117 

Rhea, 91 

Rheda, 266 

Rica, Ricinium,298 

Robigalia, 212 

Rogatio, 259 

Rogus, 302 

Roma, 119 

Romaica,2l6 

Rorarii, 276 

Rosa, Sub, 206 

Rosaceum,299 

Rostra, 17, 282, 302 

Rudentes, 282 

Rudera, 15 

Runcatores, 289 

Runcina, 120 

S. 
Saburra, 282 
Sacella, 230 
Sacertodes, 236 
Sacra gentilitia, 288 
Sacramentum, 270, 271 
Sacrificia,237 
Sacrorum jus, 258 
Sagitarii, 276 
Sagum. 298 
Salarium, 262 
Saligenita, 106 
Salii, 105,232,235,241 
Salinae, 262 
Saltus, 243 
Salus, 118 
Sambuca, 217 
Sandapila, 300 
Sandipilarii, 300 



Sarcinae, 277 
Sarcophagus, 302 
Sarculum,264 
Sarracum, 266 
Satisdare, 259 
Sator, 91 

Saturnalia, 91,242 
Saturnia, 91 
Saturnus, 91 
Saxo Tarpeio dejicere, 

260 
Scabella, 299 
Scalse, 247, 260, 280 
Scalmus, 282 
Scena, 246 
Scholar 284 
Scias, 36 
Scissor, 289 
Scorpio, 281 
Scribae, 252, 277 
Scriptura, 262 
Scutica, 260 
Scutum, 244, 274 
Scylla, 132, 
Scyphi, 297 
Secespit33, 232 
Sectio, 268 
Securi percutere, 260 
Securis, 232, 248, 264 
Secutore,s, 244 
Sedilia, 282 
Segelia, Seia, 120 
Selecti, 87 - 
Sella, 248,291 
Sella curulis, 235, 250, 
254 

portatoria, 254 
Sembella, 267 
Sementina, 241 
Semis, 266 
Semones, 87 
Senacula, 18 
Senatus auctoritas,256 

consultum,256,261 
Senio, 295 
Sentina, 282 
Septa, 257 
Septunx, 266 
Serae, 291 
Serapea, 123 
Serapis, 123 
Septemviri, 234 
Septicollis, 15, 225 
Sepulchrum, 302 
Seres, 298 
Serra, 276 
Servi terras, 290 
Servitutes praediorum, 

268 
Servitus, 260, 268 
Servus admissionalis, 

cubicularius, &c, 

289 
Sestertius, 267 
Sestertium,267 
Seva, 232 
Sexcenaria, 272 
Sextans, 266 
Sextarius,268 
Sextilis, 61 
Sicae, 196 
Sicarii, 196 
Sicarios, crimen inter, 

260 
Sigma, 291, 294 
Signa, 233,272 
Signiferi, 272 
Sileni, 130 
Silenus, 110 
Silicernium, 304 
Simpulum, 232 
Sinister, 233 
Sirennusae, 126 



Sistrum, 119,218 
Sitella,257 
Smegmata, 299 
Sminthae, 42 
Smintheus,42, 101 
Socci, 299 
Societas, 262 
Socii, 277 
Sodales, Titii, 232, 231 

Augustales, 236 
Sodalitates, 235 
Sol, 114 
Solaria, 240 
Solarium, 60,291 
Soleae, 299 
Solennia, 237 
Solidus, 267 
Somnus, 130 
Soracte,' 120 
Soranus,100 
Sors, 267 
Sortes, 240 
Sortilegi, 240 
Sortitio, 257 
Sospita, 96 
Spathae, 274 
Specillu.m, 263 
Spectacula, 243 
Specula, 290,299 
Specularia, 290 
Spes, 122 

Sphaeristerium, 293 
Spina circi, 242,243 
Spoliarium, 248 
Spondae, 294 
Sponsalia, 286 
Sponsio, 286 
Sponsor, 95 
Sportula, 295 
Spurius, 288 
Stadium, 18, 32, 268 
Stapise, 266 
Stata, 237 

Stater Daricus, 213 
Statio, 280 
Stator, 95 
Statumen, 15 
Statumina, 282 
Stega, 282 
Sterculinus, Slercu- 

tius, 91, 120 
Steropes, 107 
Stheno, 130 
Stibadium, 294 
Stipendio privari, 275 
Stipendium, 236, 274 
Stipulatio, 286 
Stiva, 264 
Stola,298 
Stragula, 294, 291 
Strangulare, 260 
Strategi, 196 
Strense, 241 
Strenua, 120 
Strigiles, 293, 303 
Stroppi, 282 
Structor, 289, 295 
Strymonius, 105 
Suarium, 17 
Subcenturio,272 
Subdivale, 290 
Subitarii, 271 
Subligaculum, 244 
Subsignani, 272 
Subsolanus, 128 
Subucula, 297 
Succina, 297 
Sudes, 280, 281 
Suffragiijus, 258 
Suggestus, 17, 247 
Suile,292 
Summanus, 100, 129, 

242 
Suovetaurilia, 105, 239 
2d2 



Supplicationes, 237,283 

Supi>licia,237 
Symbola, 280, 299 

T. 

Tabellae, 257 

legitimse, 286 
Tablinum,291 
Tabula auctionaria, 
268 

lusoria, 295 

proscriptionis, 268 
Tabulae duodecim, 261 

votivse, 238 
Tabularia, 17 
Tabularium, 17, 256 
Trediger, 289 
Taenia, 282 
Talaria, 108 
Talentum, 267 
Tali, 240, 295 
Talio, 260 
Tantalides, 136 
Tartarus, 99 
Tatiensis, 252 
Tegulae, 291 
Telesphorus, 118 
Tel!us,93, 112 
Temo, 264, 266 
Tempestas, 242 
Templa, 230, 233 
Tepidarium, 293 
Terebra, 281 
Tergemina, 102 
Terminalia, 119, 241 
Terminus, 119 
Ternio, 295 
Terpsichore, 127 
Teruncius, 267 
Tesselatum, 290 
Tessera, 280, 295 
Tesserae, 295 
Tesserarii, 280 
Testa, 296 
Testamenti jus, 258 
Testamento, 268 
Testudo, 278, 280, 281 
Tethys, 124 
Textrina, 264 
Thalia, 127 
Theatra, 18 
Themis, 117, 124 
Thensa, 266 
Theriotrophium, 292 
Thermae, 19, 290 
Theseus, 60, 134 
Thesmophora, 27 
Thesmothetae, 181 
Thetis, 98 
Thorax, 274 
Thraces, 244 
Thriambus, 109 
Thurarium, 232 
Thuribulum, 232 
Thurius, 105 
Thymbrseus, 101 
Thyoneus, 109 
Thyrsiger, 109 
Thyrsus, 110 
Tibiae, dextrae, sinistrae, 

119,239 
Tibialia, 299 
Tibicines, 238, 300 
Tinctoria, 264 
Tinctura, 264 
Tintinnabula, 266, 291 
Tisiphone, 128 
Tita?a, 91, 112 
Titanides, 91, 117 
Tituli,289 
Titulus,302 
Toga, 248, 297 
Candida, 248 
fusa, 297 



318 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Toga, praetexta, 233, 
234, 235, 249, 250 
284, 297 
pulla, 297 
virilis, 297, 299 

Togati, 297 

Tollere infantem, 287 

Tomentum, 294 

Tonsores, 289 

Topiarii, 292 

Torcular, 236 

Torcularium, 296 

Toreumata, 297 

Torques aureae, 275, 
299, 300 

Torus, 291 

Trabea, 233, 284 

Tragularii, 276 

Traha, 264, 266 

Tralatitia, 249 

Transtra, 282 

Transvectio, 256 

Triarii, 271, 272, 275, 
276, 278 

Tribula, 264, 266 

Tribunal, 17,249,257,278 

Tribuni militum, 251 
plebis, 250 

Tribus, urbanae, rusti- 
cs, 252 

Tributa, 281 

Tributa comitia,257,261 

Tricennaria, 272 
Triclinium, 291,293,304 
Tridens,244 
Triens, 266 
Trieterica, 109 
Triformis, 102 
Triga, 266 
Trigonon, 217 
Trinundinum, 261 
Tripes, 294 
Triplex acies, 275 
Tripodes, 232 
Tripudium, 233 
Triremes, 282 
Triticum, 264 
Triton, 98, 125 
Tritonia, 104 
Triumphalis lex, 283 
Triumphus, 283, 284 
Triumviri, 252, 267 
Trivia, 102 
Tropasa, 19, 199 
Trutinae, 266 



Tubae, 232.239, 272 
Tubicines,' 236,274 
Tubilustrium, 241, 242 
Tullianum, 260 
Tunica, 297 

angusticlavia, 256, 
298 

laticlavia, 256, 298 

recta, 287 
Tumultuarii, 271 
Tumultus, 7, 271 
Tumulus, 302 
TurrriEe,272, 277 
Turricula, 295 
Turris, 278, 281 
Tutela, 282 
Tympana, 266 
Tympanum, 119,218 
Typhosus, or Typhon, 

122, 125, 132 

U. 

Udones, 299 
Ultimum, 257 
Ultor, 105 
Unciae, 266 
Unctuarium, 293 
Unguenta, 299 
Unio, 295 
Unxia,96 
Uragus, 272, 277 
Urania, 106, 127, 
Uranus, 91, 113 
Urbs, 225 
Urceus, 232 
Urna, 268 

feralis, 302 
Urnae lachrymales, 303 
Usinum, 299 
Ustrina, Ustrinum, 303 
Usucapio, 268, 286 
Usura, 267 
Usurpatio, 287 
Usus, 268,286 
Utensil ia, 287 
Utres, 296 
Uxor, 287 
Uxorium, 262 



Vacatio honorata, 271, 

275 
Vacuna, 120 
Vades, 259 
Vagina, 232 



Valetudinarium, 280 
Vallonia, 120 
Vallum, 280 
Vasa murrhina, 263, 
297 
sacra, 232 
sculpta, 297 
unguentaria, 303 
Vates, 16 
Vaticanus, 16 
Vaticinatores, 240 
Vectigalia, 261 
Vedius, 95 
Vehse, 266 
Vejovis, 95 
Vela, 282 

Velites, 271,274, 276 
Venalitiarii, 289 
Venatio, 243 
Veneficii crimen, 260 
Veneralia, 241 
Venti, 128 
Ventorum Ara, 116 
Ventus textilis, 298 
Venus, 105, 295 

Genetris, 242 

Marina, 125 
Verbera, 260 
Vernse, 285 
Verticordia, 106 
Vertumnus,il9 
Vespera, 60 
Vespillones, 300 
Vesta, 18, 93, 230, 242 
Vestales, 113,232,236 
Vestalia, 241, 242 
Vestes Cose, Sericse, 

208 
Vestiarii, 289 
Vestis stragula, 266, 

291 
Vestibulum,290, 300 
Veto, 250 
Vexillarii, 272 
Vexillationes, 285 
Vexillum, 272, 275 
Vexillum purpureum, 

282 
Via Quintana, 280 

Sacra, Appia, &c, 

Viae, 15, 16 
Viaies, 129 
Viatores, 250 
Vicarii, 285 



Vicennalia, 238 
Vicesinia, 262 
Vici, 17 
Victimae,237 
Victimarii, 236 
Victor, 95 
Victoria, 120 
Victrix, 106* 
Vicus albus, &c, 17 
Vigiles, 280 
Vigiliee, 59, 240, 280 
Villa urbana, rustica, 

&c, 292 
Villicus, 292, 289 
Villicus amphitheatri, 

247 
Vinalia, 242 
Vinaria cella, 296 
Vincula, 260, 299 
Vindemiatores, 289 
Vindicatio, 259 
Vindicta, 289 
Vineae, 198, 280 
Vinum Faiernum, Cae- 

cubum, &c, 296 
Virgo, 117, 118 

maxima, 236 
Virgis,260 
Viri epulares, 234 
Virtus, 122 
Vis publicae, 260 
Viscera tio, 304 
Vitisator, 91 
Vitrea, 263 

Vitrea specularia, 290 
Vitrum, 263 
Vitta, 232, 299 
Viva voce, 268 
Vivarium, 292 
Volones, 271 
Volusia, 120 
Vomer, 264 
Vota, 238 
Voti reus, 238 
Votivi ludi,246 
Vulcanalia, 107, 242 
Vulcanus, 107, 108 
Vulpium combustio, 

112 
Vulsella, 263 
Vulturius, 101 



Zephyrus, 116, 128 
Zona, 266 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Abana, 50 
Abdera, 21 
Absynthi, or Apsynthi, 

21 
Abydos, 21, 47 
Abyla, 9, 57 
Abyssinia, 55 
Acarnania, 24, 26 
Ace, or Aco, 50 
Achaia, 34 
Acharnae, 28 
Achelous, 21, 26, 41 
Acheron, 25 
Acidalia (fount), 27 
Aciris, 13 
Acradina, 40 
Acritas Prom. 33 
Acro-Ceraunia, 24 
Acro-Ceraunii, Mon- 

tes, 21,22, 24 
Acro-Corinthus, 34 
Acte, 28 
Actium, 26 
Actium Prom. 25 ; 26 
Adramyttium, 47 
Adrianopolis, 21 
Adrumetum, 57 
Adulis,55 
JEa, 46, 135 
JEdai, 6 

JEgades or Agates, 41 
iEgaeum Mare, 21 
JEge, 34 
JEg'ma, 34, 42 
iEgissa or iEgissus, 8 
Mzium, 31 
iEgos Potamos, 21 
iEgusa, 41 
iEgypti torrens, 53 
iEgyptus, 53 
iElanites Sinus, 53 
JEnone, 42 
^nos, 21 
ilSnus, 7 

iEolice Insulae, 41 
iEolis or iEolia, 47 
iEstuarium Itunae, 40 
^Ethiopia, 55 
iEthria, 42 
jEtna,41 
iEtolia, 28 
Africa, 53 

Interior, 57 
Propria, 56 
Aganippe, 27 
Agathyrsi, 5 
Agrigentum, 41 
Agyl!a,10 
Alabanda, 48 
Alani, 46 

Alba Longa, 11, 225 
Albania, 48 
Albaniae Pylffi, 46 
Albanus Lacus, 11 
Albis, 6 

Albulus Lacus, 11 
Alburnus, 13 
Aleria, 40 
Alesia, 6 

Alexandria, 48> 54 
Alfenire, 12 
Algidum, 11 



Allemanni, 5 
Allia, 11 

Allobroges, 6 
Alos, 24 

Alpes, Graiae, &c, 7 
Alpheus, 34 
Altis, 34 
Amanus, 48 
Amardus, 44 

Amasia, 47 

Ambracia, 25 

Ambracius Sinus, 21 

A mi da, 46 

Ainisus, 47 

Amiternum, 11 

Amphipolis, 22 

Amphissa, 26 

Amphryssus, 24 

Ampsagus, 57 

Amsanctus, 12 

Amyclae, 36 

Anactorium, 26 

Anamurium, 49 

Anaphe, 42 

Anapus, 40 

Anas, 9 

Anchesmus, 25,28 

Ancona, 10 

Ancyra, 48 

Andros, 42 

Angli, 5 

Anio, 10, 11 

Anthela, 27 

Anticyra, 27 

Anti-Libanus, 50 

Antiochia, 46, 50 
in Pisidia, 48 
in Syria, 50 

Antirrhium, 25 

Antium, U 

Anxur, 11 

Aous, 24 

Apamea, 48 

on Rhyndacus, 47 
on Marsyas, 48 
on Orontes, 50 

Aphetae, 24 

Apia, 34 

Apollonia, 20,22,56 

Apulia, 12 

Aqua? Sextise, 6 

Aquileia, 9 

Aquinum, 11 

Aquitani, 6 

Aquilania, 6 

Arabia, 53 

Arabicus Sinus, 53 

Arachosia, 44 

Aracthus, 25 

Aracynthus, 26 

Aragus, 46 

Arar, 7 

Ararat, 44, 46 

Araxes, or Phasis, 46 

Araxes, 44 

Arbela, 53 

Arbiti Montes, 44 

Arcadia, 34 

Arcati Regio, 43 

Ardea, 11 

Arduenna Sylva, 7 

Aretlion,25 

Arevaci, 8 



Argaeus Mons, 48 
Argia, 34 

Argos, in Argolis, 34 
Amphilochius, 26 
Aria, 44, 46 
Aria Palus, 44 
Arimathea, 51 
Ariminum, 10 
Armenia, 46 
Armorica, 6 
Arnus, 10 
Arpi, 12 
Arpinum, 11 
Arsacidae, 44 
Arsinoe, 53, 54,56 
Arsissa Palus, 46 
Artabrum Prom. 9 
Artacoana, 46 
Arlaxata, 46 
Artemisium, 42 
Arza, 46 
Ascra, 27 
Asculum, 10, 12 
Asia, 43 
Asia Minor, 46 
Asinarius, 41 
Aspendus, 48 
Asphaltites Lacus 51, 

52 
Assyria, 53 
Astaboras, 55 
Atalanta, 27 
Aternum, 13 
Athenaeum Prom. 12 
Athesis, 10 
Athos, 22 
Atinum, 13 

Atlanticus Oceanus, 57 
Atlantis, 57 
Atlas, 57 
Atropatene, 44 
Atropatia, 44 
Attica, 28 
Aufidus, 12, 13 
Augusta Emerita, 9 

Taurinorum, 9 

Vindelicorum, 7 
Augustodunum, 6 
Aulis, 27, 42 
Aurea Chersonesus, 3, 

43 
Ausonia, 9 
Auxume, 55 
Aventinus, &c, 16 
Avernus Lacus, 12 
Axius, 22 



Babylonia, 52 
Bactra, 46 
Bactriana, 46 
Baetica, 8, 9 
Baetis, 9 
Bagdat, 52 
Bagradas, 57 
Baiae, 12 

Baleares Insulae, 40 
Barce, 56 
Barium, 13 
Basanites Mons, 54 
Basilicata, 13 
Bastamicae Alpes, 8 
Bastuli, 9 



Batavi, 6 
Bebrycia, 47 
Belgse, 6 
Belgica, 7 
Benacus, 10 
Beneventum, 12 
Bero3a,50 
Berenice, 53, 54,56 
Berytus, 50 
Bethel, 51 

Bethesda (pool), 52 
Bethlehem, 51 
Bethsaida, 50 - 
Bethsan, 51 
Bibracte, 6 
Bilbilis,8 
Bithynia, 47 
Boeotia, 27 
Boii, 10 
Boium, 26 
Bononia, 10 
Borysthencs, 5, 6 
Bosphorus, 6, 20, 21 
Bozra, 52 
Bradanus, 13 
Bran ron, 28 
Brigantes, 38 
Briga minus Lacus, 6 
Britannia, 38 
Brivates Portus, 6 
Brixia,9 

Brundusium, 13, 16 
Bruttia-tellus, 13 
Bruttii, 13 
Bruttium, 13 
Bura, 34 
Buthrotum, 25 
Buxentum, 13 
Byrsa, 56 
Byzantium, 20 



Cabira,48 
Cadmea, 27 
Caere, 10 

Caesarea, 7, 51, 57 
Caesarea Augusta, 8 

ad Argaeum, 48 

Philippi, 50 
Caieta, 11 
Calabria, 13, 14 
Calabria-citra, 13 
Calagurris, 8 
Calaris, 40 
Calauria, 42 
Calle, 8 

Callipolis, 13,21 
Calor (fl.),12 
Calpas, 47 
Calpe, 9, 57 
Calycadnus, 48 
Calydon, 26 
Cambunii Montes, 21, 

22,24 
Camerinum, 10 
Camicus, 41 
Campania, 11 
Camyrus,42 
Cana, 47 
Canae, 50 
Canaria, 57 
Cannae. 13 
319 



320 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Canopicum Ostium, 

&x.,54 
Cantabri, 9 
Canlii, 38 
Canusium, 13 
Capernaum, 50 
Caphareus, 42 
Capitolitius, &c. 16 
Cappadocia, 48 
Caprese, 40 
Capsa, 57 
Capua, 11 
Carambis, 47 
Carambucis, 3 
Cardia, 21 
Carduchi, 53 
Carduchi Montes, 46 
Caria, 48 
Carmania, 44 
Carmel, 50 
Carrii, 9 
Carpates, 8 
Carpathus, 42 
Carphia, 26 
Carrhae, 52 
Carteia, 9 
Carthago, 56 
Carthago Nova, 8 
Carystus, 42 
Cask Regio, 3, 43 
Casilinum, 11 
Caspian Pylae, 46 
Caspium Mare, 6, 44 
Cassandria, 52 
Cassiterides, 38, 40 
Castalia,27 
Castrum Minervce, 13 
Catabathmus, 54 
Catti, 5 
Caucasus, 46 
Caudinse Furculae, 12 
Caudium, 12 
Caulon, 15 
Cayster, 47 
Cebenna,7 
Cecropia, 28 
Cel(8E,6 
Celtiberi, 8 
Celiica, 6 
Celticum, 9 
Cenchreae, 34 
Cenomantii, 9 
Centum Cellae, 10 
Ceos, 42 
Cephalenia, 41 
Cephissus, 26, 27, 28 
Ceramicus,2'i, 32 
Cerasus, 47 
Cerbalus, 13 
Certa, 57 
Chaberis, 43 
Chaeronea, 27 
Chalcedon, 47 
Chalcidice, 22 
Chalcis, 22, 26, 42 
Chaldaea, 52 
Chalybes, 47 
Chalybon, 50 
Chaonia, 24, 25 
Charran. 52 
Charybdis, 13 
Chelonites, 33 
Chersonesus Cimbri- 
ca, 5 

Aurea, 3, 43 

Taurica, 5 

Thraciae, 20 
Cherusci, 5 
Chimaera, 48 
Chios, 42 
Choaspes, 44 
Chrysoceras, 20 
Chrysopolis, 47 
Chr'ysorrhoas, 50 



Cichyrus, 25 
Cicones, 21 
Cilicia,48 
Cimbri, 5 
Cimmericus Bospho- 

rus, 6, 46 
Cimmerii, 46 
Cimmerium, 12 
Circeii, 11 
Cirrha, 27 

Cisalpina Gallia, 6, 9 
Cispadana, 9 
Cissa, 21 
Cithaeron,26,28 
Citium, 53 
Clanius, 12 
Clazomenae, 47 
Clusium, 10 
Clypea, 57 
Cnemis, 27 
Cnidus, 48 
Cocytus, 25 
Codanus Sinus, 6 
Ccele-Syria, or 

Coelo-Syria, 50 
CceUus, 16 
Colchis, 46 
Collis hortulorum, 16 
Colonia Patricia, 9 
Colophon, 47 
Colossae, 48^ 
Comagene, 50 
Comana, 48 
Comaria, 43 
Comata, 7 
Complutum, 8 
Comum, 10 
Consentia, 13 
Constantinopolis, 20 
Copais Lacus, 27 
Coptos, 54 
Coracesium,48 
Coras, 26 
Corcyra, 41 
Corduba, 9 
Corfinium, 10 
Corinthia, 34 
Corinthiacus Sinus,21, 

25 
Corinthus, 34 
Corioli, 11 
Coron'ea, 27 
Corsica, 40 
Corycus, 47 
Cos, 42 
Cosetani, 8 
Cotiaris, 3, 43 
Cottise, 7 
Cragus, 48 
Crathes, 15 
Cremaste, 24 
Cremera, 11 
Cremna, 48 
Cremona, 9 
Creta, 43 
Creusa, 27 
Crimisus, 41 
Crissa,27 
Crissseus Sinus, 25 
Criu-Metopon, 5, 47 
Cronium, 34 
Crotona, 13 
Crustumerium, 11 
Ctesiphon, 46 
Cutnae, 12 
Cunaxa, 52 
Cures, 11 
Curetes, 43 
Curia, 7 
Custulo, 9 
Cyclades, 42 
Cydnus, 48 
Cydonia, 43 
Cyllene Mons, 34 



Cynocephali, 124 
Cynos, 27 
Cynos Cephale, 24 
Cynthus Mons, 42 
Cyprus, 53 
Cyrenaica, 56 
Cyrene, 56 * 

Cyrnos, 40 
Cyropolis,46 
Cyrus, 44, 46 
Cythera,41 
Cythus, 42 
Cytinium, 26 
Cyzicus, 47 

D. 

Daci,8 
Dacia, 8 
Dactyli, 43 
Dalmatia, 8 
Damascus, 50 
Danapris, 5 
Danubius, 7 
Daphne, 50 
Dardania, 8 
Daunia, 12 
Decapolis, 51 
Decelia,28 
Delium, 27 
Delos, 42 
Delphi, 27 
Delphinum,28 
Delta, 54 
Demetrias,24 
Derbe. 48 
DesertaLibyae, 57 
Dindymus, 48 
Dioclea, 8 
Diospolis, 51, 54 
Dirce Mons, 28 
Dodona,25 
Dolonei,21 
Dorion, 24 
Doris, 26 
Doriscus, 21 
Drangiana, 44 
Drepanum, 41 
Drilo, 22 

Dromus Achillei, 6 
Dryopes,26 
Dulichium, 41 
Duranius, 7 
Durius, 8, 9 
Dyme, 34 
Dyrrachium, 22 

E. 

Ebal, 51 
Eboracum, 38 
Ebusus, 40 
Ecbatana, 44 
Echinades, 41 
Edessa, 22, 52 
Edetani, 8 
Edonis, 22 
Egnatia, 13 
Eion, 21 
Elataea, 27 
Elaver, 7 
Elea, 13, 47 
Elephantine, 54 
Eleusis, 28 
Eleutheropolis, 51 
Elis, 34 
Elymais, 44 
Elymander, 44 
Emathia, 22 
Emesa, 50 
Emmaus, 51 
Ephesus, 47 
Ephyra, 25, 34 
Epidamnus, 22 
Epidaurus, 8,34 
Epipolse, 40 



Epirus, 21, 24 
Equotuticum, 12 
Eretria, 42 
Eridanus, 9, 10 
Erigon, 22 
Erineum, 26 
Erymanthus Mons, 34 
Erythrae, 47 
Erythraeum Mare, 44 
Erytopolis, 36 
Etruria, 10 
Eubcea, 42 
Evenus, 26 
Euganei, 9 
Eupatoria, 47 
Euphrates, 48 
Euripus, 25,27,42 
Europa, 4 
Eurotas, 36 
Eurymedon, 48 
Euxinus, 5, 21 
Exploratio ad Mer- 

rium,57 
Ezion-Geber, 53 



Falerii, 10 

Falisci, 10 

Fidense, 11 

Flanaticus Sinus, 7 

Flavia Caesariensis, 40 

Florentia, 10 

Formiffi, 11 

Fortunatae Insulae, 3, 57 

Forum Julii, 6 

Fossa Trajani, 54 

Fretum Fossae, 40 
Gaditanum, or 
Herculeum, 9 
Siculum, 40 

Frisii, 5 

Fucinus Lacus, 10 



Gabara, 50 
Gabii, 11 
Gadara, 50, 52 
Gades, 9 
Gaetulia, 57 
Galatia, 6, 7, 48 
Galesus, 13 
Galilaea, 50 
Gallia, 6 

Gallorum Portus, 8 
Gamala, 52 
Ganges, 43 
Gangeticus Sinus, 43 
Gangra, 48 
Garamantes, 57 
Garganus, 12 
Gargarus, 47 
Garumna, 6, 7 
Gaugamela, 53 
Gaulon, 52 
Gaulos, 41 
Gaza, 44, 52 
Gedrosia, 44 
Geloni, 5 
Genua, 10 
Gera, 52 
Geraestus, 42 
Geranii Montes, 26 
Gerizim, 51 
Germania, 5, 6 

Inferior, 7 

Superior, 7 
Germanicus Oceani- 

cus, 6 
Getse, 8 
Glaucus, river, 48 

Sinus, 48 
Glycys Lirnen, 25 
Gnossus, 43 






GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



321 



Gobaeum Prom. 6 
Gomphi, 24 
Gonnus, 24 
Gordiuin, 48 
Gortynia,43 
Goshen, 54 
Graecia, 20, 21 
Graecia Propria, 25 
Granicus, 47 
Gruinentum, 13 
Gyarus, 42 
Gyrtona. 24 
Gytheum, 36, 38 

H. 

Hadriaticum Mare, 21 

Hadrumentum or 
Adrumetum, 57 

Haemus,8, 20, 21,22^ 

Halcyoneum Mare, 25 

Halesus (river), 47 

Haliacmon,22 

Halicarnassus, 48 

Halonnesus, 42 

Halys, 47 

Hamaxobii, 5 

Hebrus, 21 

Hebrides, or Ebudae, 40 

Hecatompylos, 44, 54 

Helena, 42 

Helice, 34 

Helicon, 26,27 

Helissus, 34 

Hellas, 21, 25 

Hellespontus, 21 

Heliopolis, 50, 55 

Helorus, 41 

Helos, 36 

Helvetii, 6 

Hephaestia, 42 

Heptanonris, 54 

Heptapylos, 27 

Heraclea, 13,21,47 

Herculaneum, 12 

Herculis Columnae, 9, 

57 

LeburniPortus, 10 

Monaeci Portus, 10 

Promontorium, 15 

Hercynia Sylva, 5, 8 

Herdonia, 12 

Hermiones, 5 

Herinon, 50 

Hermundurii, 5 

Hermus, 47 

Heroopolis, 54 

Heroopolites Sin. 53 

Heruli, 5 

Hesperia, 8, 9 

Hesperides, 56 

Hesperidum, Insula?, 4, 
57 

Hesperis, 56 

Hexapolis, 26 

Hibernia, 40 

Hierapolis, 50 

Hierosolyma, 51 

Himera (town), 41 

Himera (river), 41 

Hippo, 13 

Hippo Regius, 57 

Hippocrene, 26, 27 

Hirpini, 12 

Hispalis, 9 

Hispania, 8 

Histria, 10 

Horeb, 53 

Hydruntum, 13 

Hymettus, 26, 28 

Hypanis, 6 

Hypata, 24 

Hyperborei, 3 

Hyrcania, 44 

Hyrcanium Mare, 46 
41 



I. 

Iberia, 8, 46 
Iberus, 9 
Icaria, 42 
Iceni, 38 
Ichnusa,40 
Iconium, 48 
Ida, 43, 46 
Idumea, 52, 53 
Ierne or Hibernia, 40 
Ilerda, 8 
Ilergetes, 8 
Ilissus, 28 
Ilium, 46 
Illyricum, 7, 8, 21 
Ilva, 40 

Imaus Mons, 3, 43 
Imbarus Mons, 44 
Imbrus, 42 
Inachus, 34 
India, 43 
Indus, 43 
Insubres, 9 
Insula? ante Tapro- 

banam, 4 

Hesperidum, 4 
Iolchos, 24 
Ionia, 47 

Ionium Mare. 24, 25 
Ios,42 
Iris, 47 
Isaurae, 48 
Isauria, 48 
Ismenus, 27 
Issus, 48 

Ister (Danube), 7, 8 
Istria, 8, 10 
Isurium, 38 
Itabyrius, 51 
Italia, 9 
Italica, 9 
Ithaca, 41 
Ithome, 36 

J. 

Jabadii Insula, 3, 53 
Janiculum, 16 
Japygia, 12 
Japygium Prom. 13 
Jaxartes, 46 
Jezreel, 50 
Joppa, 51 
Jordan, 52 
Jotapata,50 
Judaea, 50 
Juliae Alpes, 7 
Junonis Promont. 9 

K. 

Kibora, 8 

L. 

Lacinium, 15 
Laconia, 36 
Laconicus Sin. 36 
Ladon, 34 
Lagaria, 13 
Lamia, 24 
Lampsacus, 47 
Laodicea, 48 
Lapithae, 24 
Larissa, 24 
Larius,10 
Latium, 11 
Latoimae, 40 
Laurentum, 11 
Laurius Mons, 26 
Laus, 13 
Laus Sinus, 13 
Lavinium, 11 
Lebedsea, 27 
Lechaeum, 34 
Leleges, 47 
Lelegia, 188 



Lemanus Lacus, 6 
Lemanis Portus, 38 
Lemnos, 42 
Lemovices, 6 
Leontes, 50 
Leontium, 41 
Leptis Magna, 56 
Lesbos, 42 
Lessus, 21 
Lethe, 25 
Leucadia, 41 
Leucas, 25, 26, 41 
Leucate,26, 41 
Leucopetra, 13, 41 
Leuctra, 27 
Libanus, 50 
Liburnia, 7, 8 
Libya, 55, 57 
Libyssa, 47 
Liger, 6, 7 
Ligures, 10 
Ligusticus Sinus, 10 
Ligustides, 7 
Lilaeum, 26 
Lilybaeum, 40, 41 
Lindus, 42 
Lingones, 10 
Lipara, 41 
Liris, 10, 11 
Liternum, 12 
Locri Epicnemidii, 
Opuntii, Ozolae, 
26,27 
Locris. 26 
Londinum, 38 
Longobardi, 5 
Lotophagi, 58 
Lucania, 13 
Luceria, 12 
Lucrinus Lacus, 12 
Lugdunensis, 6 
Lugdunum, 6 
Luna, 10 
Lunae Montes, 
Lusitania, 8, 9 
Lutetia, 6 
Lycaonia, 48 
Lycaeus Mons, 36 
Lychnidus, 22 
Lycia, 48 
Lycus, 47, 48 
Lydda,51 
Lydia,47 
Lydias, 22 
Lyrnessus, 47 
Lysimachia, 21 
Lystra, 48 

M. 

Macedonia, 21 

Macoraba, or Mecca, 53 

Macra, 10 

Madytos, 21 

Mseander, 47 

Maenalus Mons, 36 

Mteonia, 47 

Maeotis Palus, 3, 6 

Magna Graecia, 11 

Magnesia, 24, 48 

Magnum Promonto- 
rium, 43 

Magnus Sinus, 43 

Makrinoros, 26 

Ma lea, 33, 36 

Maleventum, 12 

Malia, 24 

Maliacus Sinus, 21,24, 
25 

Mandubii, 6 

Mantinea, 34 

Mantua, 9 

Maracanda, 46 

Marathon, 28 

Marcianopolis, 8 



4,54 



Marcomanni, 5 

Mardii, 44 

Mardus, 44 

Mareotis, 54 

Mariana, 40 

Maritiinae Alpes, 7 

Mannarica, 56 

Marrubium, 10 

Marsi, 10 

Marsyas, 48 

Masius Mons, 46 

Massaesyli, 57 

Massilia, ae, 6, 7 

Massyli, 57 

Matinorum oppidum, 
40 

Mauritania, 57 

Maxima Caesariensis, 
40 

Mazaca, 48 

Meatae, 38 

Media, 44 

Mediolanum, 6, 9 

Megalopolis, 34, 47 

Megara, 28 

Megaris, 28 

Melanis Sinus, 21 

Melas,20, 21 

Melibcea, 24 

Melite, 41 

Melos, 42 

Melpus, 13 

Memphis, 54 

Menapii, 7 

Menuthias, 4 

Mercurii Promonto- 
rium, 57 

Me roe, 55 

Mesembria, 20 

Mesopotamia, 52 

Messana, 41 

Messapia, 13 

Messene, 36 

Messenia, 36 

Messeniacus Sinus, 36 

Mestus, i. q. Nestus, 
20, 21 

PvTetapontum,13 

Metaurus, 10 

Methone, 22, 36 

Methymna, 42 

Miletus, 47 

Mimas, 47 

Mincius, 10 

Mintumae, 11 

Misenurn, 12 

Mitylene, 42 

Mceris, 54 

Mcesia, 8 

Molossis, 24,25 

Mona Ccesaris, 40 
Taciti, 40 

Munda, 9 

Munychia, 33 

Muri Veteres, 8 

Murina, 42 

Musaeus, 28 

Mutina, 10 

Mycale, 47 

Mycenae, 34 

Myconus, 42 

Myoshormus, 54 

Myrtoum Mare, 25, 28 

Mysia, 47 - 

N. 
Naissus, 8 
Napata, 55 
Nar, 10 

Narbo Martins, 6, 7 
Narbonensis, 6, 7 
Narisci, 5 
Naryx, 27 
; Nuulodius, 41 



322 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Naupactus, 26 
Nauplia, 34 
Naxos, 42 
Nazareth, 50 
Neeethes, 15 
Neapolis, 12, 40, 51 
Nemausus, 6 
Nemea, 34 
Neritus, 41 
Nervii, 7 
Neryx, 15 
Nestus, i. q.Nessus, 20, 

21 
Nicsea, 10, 47 
Nicomedia, 47 
Nicopolis, 8,26, 48 
Niger, 57 
Nigritae, 57 
Nilns, 54 
Ninus, 52 
Niphates, 46 
Nisaea, 27, 44 
Nisibis,52 
Nisyrus, 98 
Nola, 12 

Nonacris Mons, 36 
Noricns Alpes, 7 
Noricum, 7 
Noti Cornu, 4 
Novus, 48 
Nubia, 55 
Numantia, 8 
Numidia, 57 
Nymphaeum, 22 

O. 

Oasis, 55, 56 
OcT>a, 42 
Ochus, 44 
Odessus,8 
CEa, 56 
CEbalia, 188 
(Echalia, 36 
CEnotria, 9 
QSta, 21, 24 
Olenus, 34 
Olisippo, 9 
Olympia, 34 
Olympus, 24, 40, 47 
Olynthus, 22 
Ombi, 54 
Oncius Mons, 26 
Onion, 54 
Opuntii, 27 

Opuntius Sinus, 25, 27 
Opus, 27 

Orbelus Mons, 22 
Orcades, 40 
Orchomenus, 27, 34 
Orestis, 24 
Oreus, 42 
Oricum, 24 
Orontes, 44, 50 
Oropus, 28 
Orospeda, 8 
Orouros, 50 
Ortygia, 40 
Ossa, 24 
Ostia, 11 
Othrys Mons, 24 
Oxus, 44, 46 
Oxyrynchus, 54 

P. 

Pachynurn, or 
Pachynus, 40 
Pactolus, 47 
Padus, 9, 10 
Psedurn, 11 
Paeonia, 22 
Psestanus Sinus, 13 
Paistum, 13 
Pagasae, 24 
Pagasasus Sinus, 24 



Palcestina, 50 
Pallene, 22 
Palmyra, 50 
Pamphylia, 48 
Pancisus, 36 
Pandosia, 13 
Pangaeus Mons, 21 
Pannonia, 7 
Panormus,41 
Panticapeeum, 5 
Paphlagonia, 47 
Paphos, 53 
Parisii,6 
Parma, 10 
Parnassus, 26, 27 
Parnes, 26, 28 
Paropamisus, 44 
Paros, 42 
Parrhasii, 34 
Parrhasius,36 
Parthenias (river), 47 
Parthenius, 36 
Parthenope, 12 
Parthia, 44 

Parueti Montes, 43, 44 
Pasargada, 44 
Passaro, 25 
Patara, 48 
Patavium, 9 
Patmos, 42 
Patrae, 34 
Pausilypus, 12 
Pelasgi, 24 
Pelasgia,34 
Pelasgicus Sinus, 24 
Pelasgiotis, 24 
Peligni, 10 
Pelion, 24 
Pella, 22 
Pellene, 34 
Peloponnesus, 21 
Pelorum, or Pelorus,40 
Peneus, 24, 34 
Penninae, 7 
Pentapolis, 56 
Pente liens, 26, 28 
Peraea, 52 
Perga, 48 
Pergamus, 46, 47 
Perinthus, 21 
Persepolis, 44 
Persia, 43 

Persicus Sinus, 44, 53 
Persis, 44 
Pernsia, 10 
Pesaurum, 10 
Pessinus, 48, 94 
Petilia, 13 
Petra, 53 
Phaeacia, 41 
Phalacrum Prom. 41 
Phalerum, 33 
Pharae, 34 
Pharos, 54 
Pharsalia, 24 
Pharsalus, 24 
Phasis, 46 
Pherae, 24 
Phigalia, 34 
Philaenorum Arse, 56 
Philippi, 22 
Philistaea, 52 
Phlegethon,25 
Phlegra, 22 
Phlegraei-campi, 12 
Phocsea, 6 
Phocis, 26, 27 
Phoenicia, 50 
Phrygia Major, 48 

Minor, 46 
Phylace, 24 
Phyle, or Phule, 28 
Picenum, 10, 12 
Pictones, 6 



Pieria, 22 
Pimpla, 27 
Pincius, 16 
Pindus, 21, 24, 25, 26 
Pindus (fl.) 26 
Pindus (town), 26 
Piiaeus, 33 
Pisa, 10,34 
Pisidia, 48 
Pistoria, 10 
Placentia, 10 
Plataea, 27 
Platanistas, 38 
Platanius, 27 
Plemmyrium, 40 
Plistus, 27 
Plotae, 41 
Poeni, 9 

Polytimetus, 46 
Pompeii, 12 
Pons JElii, 40 
Pontus, 8, 47 
Porphyrae,41 
Posidonia, 13 
Potidaea, 22 
Praeneste, 11 
Prasum Prom. 4 
Priene, 47 
Prochyta, 40 
Proconnesus, 53 
Propontis, 21, 47 
Prusa, 47 
Psylli, 56 

Ptolemais, or Aco, 50 
Ptolemais, 56 
Puteolanus Sinus, 12 
Puteoli, 12 
Pvdna, 22 
Pylos, 36 
Pyxus, 13 



Quadi, 5 

Quirinalis Mons, 16 
Quirium, 16 

R. 

Ragae, 44 
Ragusa, 8 
Ravenna, 10 
Reate, 11 
Regillus Lacus, 11 
Rha, 5 

Rhaeteum, 47 
Rhsetia, 7 
Rhamnus, 28 
Rhedones, 6 
Rhegium, 13 
Rhenus, 6,7 
Rhium, 25 
Rhium Prom. 33 
Rhodanus, 7 
Rhodope, 21, 22 
Rhodus, 42 
Rhyndacus, 47 
Rhype, 34 
Riduna ; 7 
Roma, 15, 119 
Rubeas, 3 
Rubicon, 10 
Rubricatus, 57 
Rudece, 13 
Rutuli, 11 
Rutupiae, 38 

S. 
Sabaei, 53 
Sabatus,12 
Sabini, 10 
Sabra.ta, 56 
Sacae, 46 
Sacer Mons, 11 
Sacrum Prom. 9, 48 
Saguntum, 8 



Sais, 54 
Salamis, 42, 53 
Salapia, 12 
Salernum, 12 
Salice, 3 
Salmydessus, 20 
Salona, 8 
Salyes, 6 
Samaria, 51 
Same, 41 
Samnis, 12 
Samnites, 12 
Samnium, 12 
Samos, 42 
Samosata* 50 
Samothracia, 42 
Sangarius, 48 
Santones, 6 
Santonum Portus, 6 
Saphrae, 5 
Sardinia, 40 
Sa'rdis, 47 
Sarmatia, 5, 46 
Sarnia, 7 
Sarnus, 12 
Saronicus Sinus, 21, 

25,28 
Saturnia, 9, 91 
Satyrorum Insula?, 3 

Promontorium, 3 
Sauromatae, 5 
Savus, 8 
Saxones, 5 
Scamander, 46 
Scanda, 41 
Scandinavia, 5 
Scheria, 41 
Sciathos, 42 
Scopelos, 42 
Scordisci, 8 
Scotussa, 24 
Scylacium, 15 
Scylla, 13 
Scyllaeum, 13, 33 
Scyros, 42 
Scythia, 43 
Sebasle, 48, 51 
Sebethus, 12 
Segedunum, 40 
Segovia, 8 
Segusiani, 6 
Seir, 52 
Seleucia, 48,52 
Seleucis, 50 
Selinus, 41, 48 
Sellasia, 36 
Selymbria, 21 
Senna Gallica, 10 
Senones, 10 
Senus, 3, 43 
Sepias, 24 
Sephoris, 50 
Sequana, 6, 7 
Sequani, 6 
Sera, 3, 43 
Serica, 43 
Seriphus, 42 
Serus, 43 
Sestos, 21 
Sicambri, 5 
Sicilia, 40 
Sicyon,34 
Sicyonia, 34 
Sidon, 50 
Sigaeum, 47 
Silarus, 11,13 
Siloam, 52 
Silures, 38 
Simaethus, 41 
Simois, 46 
Sinse,3, 43 
Sinai, 53 

Singeticus Sinus, 22 
Singidunum, 8 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



323 



Sinope, 47 

Sinuessa, 11 

Sion,or Zion, 51 

Siphnus, 42 

Sipontum, 12 

Sipylus, Mt. 47 

Sirbonis Palus, 53 

Sirmium, 7 

Sizopolis, 20 

Smyrna, 47 

Socanda, 44 

Sogdiana, 46 

Soli, 48, 53 

Solymi, 48 

Soracte Mons, 10 

Spalatro, 8 

Sparta, 36 

Sparti, 36 

Spauta Lacus, 44 

Sphacteria, 41 

Sphagiae, 41 

Spoletium, 10 
Sporades, 42 
Stabiae, 12 
Stagira, 22 
Stoechades, 7 
Stratus, 26 
Stratonicea, 48 
Strongyle, 41 
Strophades,41 
Strymon, 20, 21 
Strymonicus Sinus, 

21,22 
Stymphsei, 21, 22 
Stymphalus, 34 
Stymphe, 25 
Styx, 25, 36 
Suessa Pometia, 11 
Suevi, 5 
Su!mo, 10 
Sunium, 25, 28 
Surrentinum Prom. 
Surrentum, 12, 126 
Susa, 44 
Susianna, 44 
Sybaris, 13, 15 
Sybaris(fl.),13 
Syene, 54 
Syracusae, 40 
Syrennusai, 126 
Syria, 48 
Syria? Pylae, 48 
Syrtica Regio, 56 
Syrtis, 55, 56 



Tabor, 51 



Tabraca, 57 
Taenarum, 33,36 
Tagus, 9 
Tanagra, 27 
Tanagrus orTenagrus, 

13 
Tanais, 5, 6 
Tanais Emporium, 6 
Tamassus, 53 
Taphiassus, 26 
Taprobane, 3, 53 
Tarbelli, 6 

Tarentinus Sinus, 13 
Tarentum, 13 
Tarraco, 8 
Tarraconensis. 8 
Tarsus, 48 
Tartessus, 9 
Tauri, 5 
Taurini, 9 

Taurus Mons, 46, 48 
Tavium, 48 
Taygetus, 36 
Teanum, 11, 12 
Tegea, 34 
Telmessus, 48 
Tempe, 24 
Tenedos, 42 
Ten os, 42 
Tentyra, 54 
Teos, 47 
Tergeste, 10 
Termessus, 48 
Terina, 13 
Terinasus Sinus, 13 
Tetrapolis, 26, 41 
Teutones,. 5 
Thapsacus, 50 
Thapsus, 57 
Thasus,21, 42 
Thebae, 24, 27, 54 
Thebais, 54 
Thebarma, 44 
Themiscyra, 47 
Theodosia, 5 
Thera, 42 
Therapne, 36 
Thermae, 22 
Thermaicus Sinus, 22 
Tliennodon, 47 
Thermopylae, 21, 25, 27 
Thermus, 26 
Thespiae, 27 
Thesprotia, 24, 25 
Thessalia, 21,22 
Thessalonica,22 
Thracia, 20 



Thraciae Chersonesus, 

20 
Thracius Bosphorus, 

47 
Thrasymene Lacus, 10 
Thronium, 27 
Thule, 3, 40 
Thurium, 13 
Thyamis, 25 
Thyatira, 47 
Thymbra,47 
Thynae, 3, 43 
Thyni, 20 
Thynia, 20 
Tiberias, 50, 52 
Tiberis, 10,11,119 
Tibur, 11 
Ticinum, 9 
Ticinus, 9, 10 
Tigranocerta, 46 
Tigris, 44, 46 
Timolus, 47 
Tingis, 57 
Tingitana, 57 
Tirynthus, 34 
Togata Gallia, 9 
Toletum, 8 
Tomarus, 25 
Tomi, 8 

Toronaicus Sinus, 22 
Torrens Egypti, 53 
Trachis, 24 
Trajanopolis, 21 
Transalpina Gallia, 6 
Transpadana, 9 
Trapezus, 47 
Treveri, 7 
Trichonis Lacus, 26 
Tricola, 41 
Tridentum, 7, 9 
Trinacria, 40 
Trinobantes, 38 
Tripolitana, 56 
Triquetra, 40 
Tritaea, 34 
Tritonis Lacus, 56 
Trixicum, 12 
Troas, 46 
Trocmi, 48 
Trcezene, 34 
Troglodytae, 55 
Troja or Ilium, 46 
Tuneta or Tunes, 57 
Turris Stratonices, 151 
Tusculum, 11 
Tyana, 48 
Tycha, 40 



I Tyras, 6 
' Tyrrheni, 10 

Tyrrbenum Mare, 13 

Tyrus, 50 

Tysdrus, 56 

U. 

Ubii, 7 
Uliarius, 7 
Umbria, 10 
Uria, 12 
Urius Sinus, 12 
Utica, 57 
Uxantis Insula, 7 
Uxellodunum, 6 



Vaga, 57 
Valentia, 13, 40 
Vascones,8 
Vectis, 40 
Veii, 10 
Vejentes, 11 
Velia, 13 
Venafrum, 11 
Veneris Portus, 54 
Veneti, 9 
Venusia, 13 
Verbanus Lacus, 10 
Vergellus, 13 
Verona, 9 
Vesuvius, 12 
Viadrus, 6 
Vibo, 13 
Vindelicia, 7 
Vindobona, 7 
Vistula, 6 
Vogesus, 7 
Volcae, 6 
Volsci, 11 
Volsinii, 10 
Vulcatia, 42 
Vultur, 13 
Vulturnus, 12 



Xanthus, 25, 46, 48 



Zacynthus, 41 
Zagros, 44 
Zama, 57 
Zariaspa, 46 
Zephyrium, 15 
Zion, 51 
Zoar, 52 



GENERAL INDEX. 



A. 

Abraham, 69 

Abraxas. 124 

Absalom's Pillar, 223 

Absynthians, 21 

Absyrtns, 135 

Academy of Inscriptions, 17 

Achaia, constitution and league 
of, 75, 193 

Actions or suits at law, 186 

Actium, battle of, 71,77 

Actors, theatrical, 176 

Admetus, 101 

Adonai, 106 

Adonis, story of, 106 ; festival 
of, 169 

Adoption among Romans, 288 

Adoration, origin of the word, 
237 

Adrastia, 117 

Adultery, punished by Greeks, 
220 ; by Romans, 260 

iEacus, 100 

iEcastor, 136 

iEdepol, 136 

JEdiles, Roman, 249 

^Eetes, 135 

JEgis of Minerva, 104 

iEgos Potomos, battle of, 74 

iElurus, 124 

JEolus, 116 

iEsculapius, oracles of, 166, 117 

.Etolia, confederacy of, 193 

Agamemnon, 137 

Age, respect paid to, 159 

Agiaia, 107 

Agriculture, among the Greeks, 
158, 212 ; among the Ro- 
mans, 264 

Ajax, 137 

Alabaster, 221 

Alaric, master of Rome, 79,225 

Alban mount, 283 

Alceste, 134 

Alcmseon, 136 

Alexander, his coffin, 221 

Aloides, 100 

Altars, Grecian, 148, 160; Ro- 
man, 230 ; Roman, in Eng- 
land, 230 

Amazons, 131 

America, whether known to 
the ancients, 57 

Amnion, 95, 165 

Amor, or Cupid, 106 

Amphiaraus, temple of, 28 

Amphictyon, 133 

Amphictyonic Council, 1S3 

Amphion, 102, 136 

Amphitheatres, Roman, 246 

Amusements, of Greeks, 159, 
207, 214; of Romans, 242, 
247, 295 

Andromeda, 133 

Angels, ministry of, a source 
of ancient fable, 84; fallen, 
129 

Annual Register, or Calendar 
at Rome, 241 

Anointing, 158, 209, 210 

Antseus, 134 

Anteros, 106 

Antimachus, Greek poet, 136 
324 



Antiochus the Great, 70 

Antipater, 177 

Antiquaries, Society of, 17 

Antiquities, classical, utility of, 
143, 227 

Antony and Cleopatra, 77 

Anubis, Egyptian god, 124 

Apis, 123; supposed a symbol 
of Joseph, 124 

Apollo, 100; Belvidere, 101; 
temples of, 18, 101 ; oracle 
of, 165 

Apollonius, Rhodius, 150 

Apotheosis, of heroes, 133 ; Ro- 
man emperors, 122, 137, 304 

Apparel, common, 157 ; milita- 
ry, 154 

Aqueducts, Roman, 19 ; at Spo- 
letium, 10 

Arachne, 104 

Ararat, Mt., ascended by Par- 
rot, 46 

Arbela, battle of, 70 

Arbitrators, at Athens, 186 ; at 
Rome, 259 

Arches, triumphal, 10, 19 

Archimedes, tomb of, 223 

Architecture of Greek houses, 
158.210 

Archons, 151, 176, 177, 180 

Arcturus, rising of mentioned 
by Ilesiod, 65 

Areopagus, 32, 177, 184 

Argonauts, 135; sphere made 
for them, by Chiron, 64; 
pictures of, &c, 98 

Argos, oracular shrine at, dis- 
covered by Clarke, 164; 
constitution of, 193 

Argus, 108 

Ariadne, 109, 135 

Armies, Grecian, 153; Roman, 
271; attendants of Roman, 
277 

Armor, ancient, 153, 194, 274 

Arsaces, 71 

Arsacidse, 71 

Artisans, Roman, 263 

Arts, magical, 240 ; the mecha- 
nic at Rome, 263, 264 

Ashes of the dead, 221 

Ashtaroth or Astarte, 106 

Assemblies, of the Romans or 
Comitia, 257; Greeks, 183, 
190 

Assyrian empire, 69 

Astraea, 117 

Astrologers, 240 

Asylum, privileges of, 162 

Atel, 5 

Athens, origin of name, 104; 
citizens of, 178 ; govern- 
ment of, 151, 177 ; political 
history, 72, 142, 151, 177; 
topography of, 28, 178; 
magistrates of, 180; re- 
venues and expenditures, 
181, 182; senate and as- 
semblies, 183, 184 

Athletics, Greek system of, 175 

Atlantides, 114, 134 

Atlas, 133, 134 

Atmosphere personified, 94 



Atridae, 136 

Attila, leader of the Huns, 79 

Atys, 93 

Auction, 268 

Augurs, Roman, 233 

Augustulus, 79 

Augustus, master of Egypt, 71 

Aurora, 114 

Auspices, 233 

Auxiliary troops of Romans, 

277 
Avatars or incarnations of 

Vishnu, 95 

B. 

Babel, builders of, 125 

Babylon, founding of, 69 ; walls 
of, 52, 69, 114; commerce 
of, 212 

Bacchus, 109; festivals of, 169; 
cave of, 33 

Bachelors, tax on, 262, 286 

Balbec, ruins of, 50 

Ball, ornament worn by Roman 
youth, 299; playing with, 
216 

Banishment, 187, 191, 260 

Bankers at Rome, 17, 263 

Banquets, evening, 295; of 
Greeks, 157 

Bathing, among Greeks, 158, 
208; among Romans, 293 

Baths, construction of, 209 

Battering-ram, 281 

Battle, Greek order of, 154, 
197; manner of commenc- 
ing, 197, 198 ; Roman order 
of, 275, 278; at sea, 2S2; 
Hesiod's of the Titans, Ho- 
mer's of the Gods, 125 

Beaks of ships, 202 

Beatification of saints, origin 
of, 137 

Bellerophon, 131, 133 

Bellona, 105, 120 ; temple of, 49 

Belzoni, his entrance of a pyra- 
mid, 123 

Beneventum, battle of, 76 

Besieging, art of, among the 
Greeks, 198; Romans, 280 

Betrothing before nuptials, 220 

Birds, divination by, 167 

Births, goddess over, 96 

Bissextile year, 62 

Bceotia, constitution of, &c. 192 

Boaotian intellect, 28 

Boundaries of land, Roman, 
119 

Boxing, 173, 243 

Brachma, Hindoo deity, 93, 95 

Brass, material for ancient, 
arms and tools, 154 

Bread, inventor and god of 
kneading, 120; baking of, 
263 

Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 
300 

Brennus, sack of Rome by, 76 

Briareus, 125 

Bricks, Roman, 263 

Bride, Greek, 220 ; Roman, 287 

Bridges over the Tiber, 16; of 
Xerxes and Darius, 200 



GENERAL INDEX. 



325 



Brizo, goddess over the inter- 
pretation of dreams, 167 

Brokers, Roman, 263 

Broth, Spartan black, 191 

Brutus and Cassius, 77 

Bubastis, 124 

Burial-places, 149, 222, 302, 303 

Burial-rites, importance of 
among the ancients, 223 

Burning of corpses, 149, 221, 
300, 302; of widows, 149 



Cabiri, mysteries of, 136 

Cabirian temple, 22 

Cacus, 107, 134 

Cadmus, 133 

Caduceus of Mercury, 108 

Caeculus, 107 

Calendar, Roman, 61, 241; Gre- 
gorian, 62 

Calends, 61,240 

Calliope, 127 

Cambvses, conqueror of Egypt, 
71" 

Camillus, captor of Veii, 76 

Camp, Grecian, 154, 197; Ro- 
man, 278; discipline of,280 

Campagna di Roma, 20 

Canal of Claudius, 10, 11 

Cannae, battle of, 77 

Canopus, 124 

Capaneus, 136 

Capital trials, Roman, 259 

Capitol, Roman, 17 

Capitolinus, the hill, 16 

Captives, treatment of, 154, 
155, 199 

Carriages, Roman, 266 

Carthaginians, History, 71, 72 

Caspian gate or pass, 46 

Cassander, 177 

Castagnas, 21 

Castalia, 127 

Castanets, 218 

Castor and Pollux, 135 

Catacombs, 55, 221 

Catiline, conspiracy of, 77 

Cavalry, Greek, 24, 194, 197; 
Roman, 270, 276 

Cecrops, 133 

Celestials, or celestial gods, 87 

Cemeterv, origin of term, 223 

Cenotaphs, 222, 302 

Census, Roman, 239 

Censors, Roman, 250 

Centaurs, 24, 131 

Centimani, 113 

Centumvirate, 259 

Centurial or Secular games, 213 

Centuries, division of Romans 
into, 252 ; voting by, 257 

Cephalus, 115 

Cerberus, 37, 100, 132, 221 

Ceremonies of ancient wor- 
ship, 147, 14S; nuptial, 159, 
220, 287 

Ceres, 110; temple and statue 
of, found by Dr. Clarke, 
112; festivals of, 169 

Cester or Chester, towns 
whose names end in, 260 

Cestius, pyramid of, 223 

Cestus, girdle of Venus, 106 

Chaeronea, battle of, 74 

Chairs, 212; of state, 254 

Chance, personified, 119 

Chants, funeral, 221 

Chariots, race in, 172; Grecian, 
153; Roman, 266 

Charming or fascinating, the 
power of, 240 

Charon, 100, 221 

Charts, chronological, 66 



Charybdis, 132 

Chase, 158; goddess of, 101 

Cherry-trees, whence brought, 
47 

Children, treatment of among 
Greeks, 159; at Sparta, 
189; legitimate, &c, 220; 
among Romans, 286, 287 

Chil Minar, or palace of forty 
columns, 44 

Chimaera, 131 

Chimneys, 210,291 

Chloris, 120 

Choragic tripods, 33 

Chorus, of Greek tragedy, 176 ; 
part of the Spartan Forum, 
36 

Christ, year of his birth, 64, 65 

Christianity, influence of on 
literature and society, 287 

Christians, how put to death 
by Romans, 261 ; their 
tombs, 303 

Chronology, classical, &c, 59 ; 
systems of, 66; brief out- 
line of, 67 

Churches called Basilicae, 13 

Cicero, his table, 267 

Circensian games, 212 

Cities, principal Greek, 141 

Citizenship, Roman, 258 

Civil affairs of Greeks, 150, 176 ; 
of Romans, 248 

Classes of citizens at Athens, 
177; Sparta, 188; Rome, 
253, 286 

Classic authors, origin of the 
phrase, 253 

Client and patron, 254 

Climates, ancient division of 
earth into, 4 

Clio, 127 

Clisthenes, 177 

Clocks, 60, 240 

Coan vestments, 298 

Ccelus, 113 

Coffins, 302, 303 

Cohorts, 272, 277, 284 

Coins, Greek, 213; Roman, 266; 
their use in chronology, 65 

Coliseum, 19 

Collatinus, 227 

Colleges or orders of Roman 
priests, 232; of artisans, 
263 

Colonies, from Greece, 72, 73, 
142; of Rome, 258 

Colossal statues, 42 

Column of Duiliius, 284; of the 
twisted serpent, 165 

Combats, single, in ancient 
war, 156 

Commerce, of Greeks, 152,212; 
of Romans, 263 ; of Baby- 
lon, 212 

Comus, 119 

Concord, 18 

Concubinage among Greeks, 
220 

Consecration, of Rom ui empe- 
rors, 137, 304; of temples, 
&c, 238 

Constantine the Great, his 
reign, 78; his imp. stand- 
ard, 272; his military sys- 
tem, 284 

Constantinople, situation and 
topography, 20; tripod in 
its hippodrome, H'<5 

Consular army, 271, 277 

Consuls, Roman, 248 

Conveyance, modes of, 266 

Copper, used before iron, 154 

Corinth, constitution of, 192; 

2 E 



isthmus of, 34 ; capture of, 

74, 75, 77 

Corn, distribution of at Rome, 
261 

Coronis, 117 

Corpses, burning of, 221, 300 

Cosmetics, 210,299 

Cosmogony of the Greeks, 146 

Costume, Grecian, 157, 208; 
Roman, 297 

Cottage of Romulus, 17 

Cotton, use of, 209 

Couches, for reclining at table, 
206,291,293, 297; for sleep- 
ing, 290 

Country-seats of Romans, 291 

Courts, at Athens, 150, 165 ; at 
Sparta, 191 ; at Rome, 259 

Covenants, manner of confirm- 
ing, 164 

Covenants or leagues, 164 

Cow, symbol of Isis, 122 

Crassus, wealth of, 267 

Crete, early constitution, &c, 
151, 192; Labyrinth of, 43 

Creusa, 135 

Crimes at Rome, 259 

Crishna, Hindoo deity, 95, 101 

Croesus, king of Lydia, 70 

Crowns, 150, 175, 275 

Crusaders, at Constantinople, 
79 

Cunaxa, battle of, 70, 74 

Cupid, 106 

Curtain, of the ancient theatre, 
246; embroidered, 148, 21b 

Curtian Lake, 17 

Curule, officers, 254 ; chairs, 254 

Cushites, 125 

Cybele or Rhea, 93 ; priests of, 
236 

Cycles of the ancients, 62 

Cyclopean architecture, 41, 107 

Cyclops, 107,124 

Cymbals, 217 

Cynocephalus, 124 

Cyrene, remains of, 56 

Cyrus, king of Persia, 70 

Cyrus the younger, 70; expe- 
dition of, 70, 74; palace of, 
114; tomb of, 223 

D. 

Dacian mines, 8, 262; tablets, 
272 

Diedalus, labyrinth built by, 43 

Daemons, 129 

Danaides, 100 

Danaus, 133 

Dancing, at feasts, 159, 207, 216 

Daphne, 101 

Darius, 70 

Dates of ancient events, how 
ascertained, 63; helps in 
remembering, 67 

David, reign of, 69 

Days, reckoning and division 
of, &c, 59, 240; origin of 
the names of, 62; Roman 
manner of spending day, 
292 

Death, as a god, 130; punish- 
ment of, how inflicted by 
Greeks, 167, 191 ; by Ro- 
mans, 260 

Decemvirs, 76, 251 

Dedication of Roman temples, 
238 

Deification of heroes, 137; of 
emperors, 137, 304 

Deities, classes of ancient, 87, 
138; peculiar to Romans, 
119 

Dejanira, 134 



328 



Delphi, Apollo's temple at, 101 ; 
oracle of, 165 

Deluge, of Deucalion, 24; tra- 
ditions of universal, 84, 106 

Demetrius Poliorcetes, 177 

Demi-pods, 87, 132, 149 

Deucalion, 24, 133 

Dial, 60, 210 

Diana, 101 ; temple of, at Ephe- 
sus, 114; Bubastis, 124 

Dice, playing with, 295 

Dictator, Roman, 75, 251 

Dictionaries, mythological, 89 

Dido, 72 

Dighton rock, figure, &c, found 
near it, 153 

Diocletian, his persecution and 
niassacer of Christians, 78 

Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a 
slave, 180; the Cynic, his 
tomb, 223 

Diomedes, 137 ; villa of, 296 

Dionysia, 169 

Dionvsius the tyrant, prison 
of, 40 

Dioscuri, 135 

Dirges, at funerals, 221 

Disa, goddess of Germans, 122 

Discipline, military, 199; of 
Roman camps, 280 

Diseases deified, 120 

Dishes at a Roman supper, 294 

Divination, art of among the 
Greeks, 149, 164, 166; Ro- 
mans, 240 

Divinity, Greek and Roman 
idea of, 87 

Divisions of time, 59 

Divorces, Roman, 287 

Dodona, oracle of, 25, 165 

Dogs of Molossis, 25 

Domestic affairs of Greeks, 157, 
204: of Romans, 285 

Dominical letter, 63 

Dowry in marriage, 220 

Draco, his laws, earliest writ- 
ten in Greece, 177 

Dramatic exhibitions, among 
Greeks, 175; Romans, 246 

Dreams, on interpretation of, 
167,240; god of, 130 

Dress of Greeks, 1.57, 208 ; Ro- 
mans, 297 

Drinking cups, 204, 207, 297 

Druidical temple, 148 

Druids, 237 

Drum, 217 

Dryads, 126 

Dryope, 116 

Dwellings, Roman, 290; Gre- 
cian, 210 

Dyeing, art of, 264 

E. 

Ear-rings, Roman, 299 

Earth personified, 93, 112 

Earthenware, 263 

Eating, Roman customs in, 293 

Eclipses in ancient times, 64, 
197 

Edict, of Prsetor, 249 

Education among the Greeks, 
159; Romans, 288 

Egeria and Nurna, 229 

Egypt, productiveness of, 261 ; 
deities of, 122; Geography 
of, 53 ; Chronology of, 66, 
71 ; works on, 71 

Egyptian gods, 122; customs 
of burial, 100 

El Wan, site of temple of Jupi- 
ter, 56 

Elections at Rome, 257 

Elephants used in war, 194 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Eleusinian mysteries, 112, 169 

Eleven, the Athenian magis- 
trates, 181 

Elysium, 99 

Emancipation of sons, 287, 288 : 
of slaves, 289 

Embalming the dead, 221 

Emperors deified, 122, 137, 304; 
Roman, their reign, 78 

Empire, Roman power of, 249; 
military system of, 270; 
changes in, 284; extent of, 
226 ; division of, 285 ; East- 
ern, 79 

Employments, under guardian 
deities, 120 ; of Greeks, 
158; of Romans, 262 

Empresses, on Roman coins, 96 

Engines, military, 198, 280 

Entrails of victims, as prognos- 
tics, 234 

Epaminondas, 74 

Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 114 

Ephori, 151, 190, 191 

Epidaurus, medical springs at, 
117 

Epirotes, 25 

Equites or knights of Rome, 254 

Eras and Epochs, 65 

Erato, 127 

Erebus, 100 

Erigone, 117 

Erysicthon, 112 

Essarhaddon, 69 

Eteocles and Polynices, 136 

Etruscans, their religious usa- 
ges, 229 

Eulogies over the dead, 222, 302 

Euryale, 130 

Euterpe, 127 

Evil eye, superstition respect- 
ing, 240 

Evolutions, military, 197 

Exercises of Roman camp, 280 

Exhalations of Pontine marsh- 
es, 11 

Expenses, public, at Athens, 
182,224; at Rome, 236, 262 

Expiation among the Romans, 
239 

Exposing of children, by Ro- 
mans, 287 



Fabii, race of, 11 

Fables, mythological, sources 
of, 84 

Falconer, shipwreck described 
by, 23 

Fallen spirits, 129 

Fame, goddess of, 118 

Families, Roman, 286 

Family habitations, from Ves- 
ta, 113 

Fanatic, origin of the term, 
240 

Fascination, 240 

Fasting among ancients, 171 

Fate, controlling the gods, 88 

Fates, 127 

Father, of mankind, according 
to Greeks, 124; power of 
the Roman, over his chil- 
dren, 287 

Fauns, 130 

Faunus, grove and oracle of, 11 

Feast of the gods, 234 

Feasts, social, of Greeks, 158, 
206; of Romans, 294 

Feet, covering for, 208, 298 

Females, state of in Greece, 
159, 218; obligations of, to 
Christianity, 287 

Feronia, 120 



Festivals, Greek, 168; Roman, 

241 
Field of Truth, 99 
Fire, the vestal, 113 
Fishing among Greeks, 158 
Fish-pond of Hortensius, 292 
Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135 
Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203; Ro- 
man, 282 
Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 293 
Flight of birds, ominous, 149, 

233 
Flood, in time of Deucalion, 24 
Flora, 120 

Flowers, goddess of, 120 
Food, of Greeks, 157, 204; Ro- 
mans, 293, 294 
Foot, means of determining the 

Roman, 268 
Fortune, goddess of, 118 
Forums, at Rome, 17 ; Athens, 

32 
Fountain of the sun, 56 
Fowling, among Greeks, 158 
Foxes, burning of, in worship 

of Ceres, 112 
Franciade, 66 
Free men and freedmen, at 

Rome, 285 
French Republic, era of, 65 
Fret-work, 290 
Fulling of cloth, 264 
Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 
149,221,222; Roman, 300; 
songs, 221 ; eulogies, 222, 
302; pile, 149,302 
Funeral orations of Pericles 

and Demosthenes, 222 
Furies, 99, 128 

Furnaces in Roman houses, 291 
Furniture of houses, 212,290 



Gabriel, stone of, 53 

Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 42 

Galleys, or war-ships, 200, 282 

Gamblers of Pompeii, 294 

Games of the Greeks, 172, 173 ; 
Olympic, &c, 173 ; social, 
207; Romans, 242; in ho- 
nor of the dead, 222, 304 

Ganymedes, 96 

Gardening, god and goddess of, 
119; of the Romans, 292 

Garlands, 175, 275 

Gates of Rome, 16 

Gauls, Rome burnt by, 225 ; 
history of, 7 

Gelon, of Syracuse, 72 

Gemini, 135 

Gems, illustrative of Mytholo- 
gy, 86 

Genius and Genii, 128 

Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79 

Geography, knowledge of the 
Greeks in, 3; epitome Gf 
classical, 3 

Geryon, 131 

Giants, 124, 125, 133 

Gladiators, Roman, 244, 304 

Glass, how far used bv Ro- 
mans, 263, 290 

Gnomon, 60 

Gods, Greek and Roman, num- 
ber of, 85; classes of, 87 
their residence, &c, 87 
food, &c. 88; genealogy, 9C 
Egyptian admitted^mong 
the Romans, 122 ^ 

Golden age, 91, 93 ; number, 63 

Gorgons, 130 

Goths, Rome taken by, 79, 225 

Government, changes in form 
of Grecian, 72, 141,151,176, 






GENERAL INDEX. 



327 



178, 191; of Roman, 75, 
248; by Romans over con- 
quered nations, 258 

Gracchi, the two, 77 

Graces, 127 

Graici, and other names of an- 
cient Greeks, 141 

Grain, kinds of, 264; distribu- 
tion of at Rome, 261 

Grapes, varieties of, 295 

Grecian cities, 141 

Greece, first inhabitants, bar- 
barous. 141, 150; colonies 
in, 142; causes of culture 
and improvement, 141, 143; 
periods in the progress of 
refinement, 145; extent of, 
20, 21, 111 ; outline of the 
chronology of, 72; form of 
government in, 141, 142, 

151, it; 

Greek antiquities, utility of, 

143; writers on, 144 
Greek emperors, 79 
Greeks in southern Italy, 13 
Gregorian calendar, 62 
Griffon, 132 
Grinding, method of, 158, 159, 

264 
Groves, sacred, 18, 162, 230 
Guest-chambers, 293 
Gyges, ring of, 99 
Gymnastic art, 175 

H. 

Habits, domestic, of Romans, 

292 
Hades~99, 221 ; gates of, 99, 223 
Hair, modes of dressing, 208, 

299 
Hallirrhotius, 105 
Hamadryads, 126 
Hartnodius and Aristogiton, 177 
Harmonia, 107 
Harpies, 41, 128 
Harpocrates, 124 
Harps, 217 

Harrowing, god of, 120 
Head, coverings for, 208. 298 
Health, drinking of, 207, 295; 

goddess of, 117, 118 
Heathenism, moral influence 
of among Greeks and Ro- 
mans, 86 
Hebe, 96 
Hecate, 101 
Hecatomb, 147 
Hecatompylos, 71 
Hector, 137 
Heirs, at Athens, 220 
Helen, 137 
Helicon, 126 
Heliogabalus, 298 
Heliotrope, 60 
Helius, 114 
Hell, rivers of. 99 
Helmet, 153, 274; of Pluto, 99 
Helots, 189 

Hephasstion, friend of Alexan- 
der, 222 
Heralds, 150, 197, 234 
Hercules, 131; story of ex- 
plained, 134 
Hermse, busts or statues so 

called, 109,119 
Hermanubis, 124 
Hermes, 108 ; Trismegistus, 108 
Heroes, worship of, & c . 132, 149 
Heroic age, 72, 132; manners 

of, 159 
Heruli, Rome taken by, 78 
Hesperides, 134 
Hierarchy of Romish church, 
233 



Hieromancy, 167 

Hills of Rome, 16 

Hippias and Hipparchus, 177 

Hippocrene, 127, 131 

Hippodamia, 131, 136 

Hippomedon, 136 

History of principal ancient 
states, 69; illustrated by 
coins, 65 ; sacred, as related 
to pagan mythology, 84 

Horsemanship, 156, 194, 276 

Horsemen or knights, 270, 276 

Horse, Neptune patron of, 98 

Horse-race, 172 

Horses, for chariots and for 
carrying burdens, 266 

Hortensius, his villas, 292 

Horus, 100, 122, 124 

Hospitalitv, Grecian, 158, 179, 
207; Roman, 295 

Hours, goddesses of, 127 ; of the 
day, 60, 240 

Household gods, 129 

Household, Roman, 288, 2S9 

Houses, Grecian, 158, 210; Ro- 
man, 2«0 

Hunting, fishing, &c, 158 

Hurdles. 280 

Hvacinthus, 101 

Hydra, 131 

Hydraulic organ, 217,247 

Hygeia, 117 

Hymenaeus, 107 

Hyperion, 114, 124 



Iacchus, 170 

Ibis, 122 

Ictimuli, mines of, 262 

Idas, 135 

Ides, 61,240 

Idolatry, origin of, 83, 84 

Idomeneus, 137 

Ignis, 113 

Ilithyia, 66, 102 

Ilium or Troy, 46 

Illyrians, 8 

Images in temples, 146, 160, 230 

Imperial government, Roman, 

249 
Implements of agriculture, Ro- 
man, 264 
Imprisonment at Rome, 260 
Inachus, 133 

Indian mythology, its resem- 
blance to Greek, 86 
Indiction, cycle of, 63 
Industry, art of, 212, 263 
Inferior gods, 113 
Infernal regions, entrance to, 

12.36; rivers, 25 
Inheritances at Athens, 220 
Inns, 158, 208 

Inscriptions, on altars, 230 ; on 
tombs, &c.,222; use of, in 
chronology, 65 
Institute, Royal, of France, 17 
Instruments/agricultural, 264 ; 
sacrificial, 232; musical, 
216, 217, 272 
Intelligence and wisdom per- 
sonified, 104 
Intelligence, means of convey- 
ing among Greeks, 199; 
Romans, 15 
Interest, rate of at Rome. 267 
Intermarriages at Rome, 254 
Inuus, 116 
lo, 105, 122 

Ipsus, battle of, 70, 74 
Iris, goddess of the rainbow 

96, 115 
Isa, Hindoo deity, 122 
Isiac Table, 123 



Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102,122 ; 
table of, 123; temple of, 
discovered at Pompeii, 123 
Isocrates, tomb of, 223 
Isthmian games, 98, 175 
Italo-Grecian states, 15 
Italy, geography of, 9 
Ixion, 96, 100 



Janus, a Roman god, 16, 93 

Japhet, similar to JapetU6, 124 

Jason and Medea, 135 

Javelin, hurling of, 172 

Jeroboam, 69 

Jerusalem, topography of, 51, 
52; destruction of, 70 

Jewish history and chronolo- 
gy, outline of, 69, 70 

Jobates, 131 

Joseph, son of Jacob, 124 

Joshua, 69 

Journals and Periodicals illus- 
trating classical literature, 
17 

Judges in Hades, 100 

Judicial proceedings, Greek, 
185; Roman, 259 

Juggernaut, festival of, &c. 110 

Jugglers and rope-dancers, 244 

Julian, the Apostate, 78; pe- 
riod, 63 

Junia, sister of Brutus, 302 

Juno, 96 

Jupiter, 94 ; Ammon, 95, 165 ; 
temples of, 17 ; statue of in 
Olympia, 114; Pluvius or 
Pluvialis, 95 

Justice, courts of, 150, 184, 259 ; 
goddess of, 117 

K. 

Kaaba at Mecca, 53 

Kalends, see Calends. 

Keys, ancient, 212 

King, Archon, 181 ; Roman 
priest so called, 234 

Kings, power of the early Gre- 
cian, 150, 1S9; the Spar- 
tan, 189; the Roman, 226, 
234, 248; ensigns of, 248; 
kissing the feet, 210 

Knights, Roman, 254 



Labyrinth, Egvptian, 54, 55; 
Cretan, 43," 135 

Lacedsemon, see Sparta. 

Lachrymatories, 303 

Lamps, ancient, 291 

Language, early Latin, similar 
to Latin now used in Wal- 
lachia, 8 

Lantern of Demosthenes, 33 

Lapithse, 24, 131 

Lares and Penates, 129 

Laticlave, 298 

Latona, 116 

Lawgivers, of Athens, 168 

Laws of Greece, early, 151 ; of 
Athens. 158 : Sparta and 
Crete, 191 ; Rome, 261 

Lawsuits, Athenian, 186; Spar- 
tan, 191 ; Roman, 259 

Lawyers, Roman, 262 

Leaping, game of Greeks, 172; 
of Romans. 243 

Legion, the Roman, 270, 271, 
272; Thundering, 238; 
number of legions, 284 

Legitimation, Roman, 288 

Leonidas, his tomb, 38 

Letters, used to represent num- 
bers, 213, 267 



328 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Levying, Roman system of, 271 

Libations, 147, 163, 238 

Licentiousness of the Greeks, 
220 

Lictors,248, 250 

Life, private, of Greeks, 204; 
Romans, 285 

Light troops, 194, 276 

Loretto, chapel of, 10* 

Lots, used for learning the fu- 
ture, 167, 240; in choosing 
magistrates, 180 

Lucifer, 114 

Lucin'a, 102 

Lucretia, outrage upon, 75, 227 

Lucullus, his villa, 12 

Luna, 114 

Lunar cycle, 62 

Lupercus, 116 

Lustrations, 147, 239 

Luxury of Romans, 227, 267 

Lycia, Greek tombs in, 223 

Lycurgus, Spartan lawgiver, 
73, 151 

Lydian history, 70 

Lynceus, 135 

Lyncus, 112 

Lyre, 216,217; invention of, 108 

Lysander, 177 

M. 

Maccabees, 69 

Machaon, 117 

Machines, used in war, 281 

Magical arts, 167, 240 

Magistrates at Athens, 180; 
Sparta, 190; Rome 251 

Magnesia, battle of, 70 

Maia, 108 

Makrinoros, pass of, 26 

Mamertine prison, 260 

Manes, 129 

Maniples in Roman army, 272 

Manners, general, of Romans, 
292 

Mantlets, 280 

Manumission of slaves, 289 

Marching, Roman order of, 278 

Marines, 202, 282 

Marius,77 

Market days at Rome, 241 

Markets, 17, 32 

Marriages, Greek, 159, 218 
Roman, 286 

Mars, 105 ; priests of, 235 

Marsyas and Apollo, 101 

Martial rewards and punish- 
ments, 199, 275 

Masks, ancient, 176, 247 

Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- 
solus, 114,223 

Meals, Spartan, public, 190, 
191 ; Grecian generally, 
157,204,206; Roman, 293 

Measures and Weights, Gre- 
cian, 214; Roman, 268 

Mechanical trades at Rome, 263 

Medea, 135 

Mediterranean, navigation of, 
152 

Medusa, 104, 130 

Melicertes, 125 

Melpomene, 127 

Memnon, sounding statue of, 
115 

Memory, systems of artificial, 
67,68 

Mendes, 116 

Menelaus, 137 

Menes, Egyptian king, 71 

Merchants, festival of, 242; 
Roman, 263 

Mercury, 108 

Mermaid, 126 



Mesmerism, a supposition con- 
cerning, 166 

Metals, used by Vulcan, 107 

Metamorphoses,fables respect- 
ing, 85 

Metempsychosis, 84 

Methodicschool in medicine, 137 

Metics, or resident aliens at 
Athens, 178 

Metis, wife of Jupiter, 94 

Meton, his cycle, 62 

Midas, gift of Bacchus to, 109 

Milestones, Roman, 16 

Military affairs, of Greeks, 152, 
193; of Romans, 270 

Milk in libations, 147 

Mills, for grain, 264 

Milo, catacombs of, 221 

Miltiades.21,73 

Minerva, 104; festival of, 171; 
temples of, 29, 37 

Mines, 22, 26,38, 262 

Minos, 100, 131, 133 

Minotaur, 131, 134 

Mint, at Athens, 213; at Rome, 
267 

Mirrors, ancient, 209 

Mithras, 100, 134 

Mizraim, grandson of Noah, 71 

Mnemosyne, 124, 126 

Mnevis, 123 

Mceris, lake of, 54 

Moloch, 91 

Momus, 119 

Money, of the Greeks, 212, 213; 
the Romans, 266, 267, 275 

Months of Greeks and Romans, 
60, 61 ; personified, 127 

Monuments to the dead, 221, 
302 

Morals and manners in Greece 
and Rome, 227 

Morea, 34 

Morpheus, 130 

Mosaic floors, 290 

Mosque at Cordova, 9 

Mother of gods, 93 

Mourning for the dead, 300, 
302, 304 

Mules, use of, by Romans, 266 

Mummies, 55, 221 

Municipal towns, Roman, 258 

Murra or Murrhinum, vases of, 
263 

Musseus, 150 

Muses, 126; on the ring of 
Pyrrhus, 127 

Music, in Greek education, 159, 
accompaniment of ban- 
quets, 216, and of sacrifices, 
238 ; science of, 216 

Musical instruments, 216; in 
Roman army, 272 

Myriologues, 221 

Mysteries, of Cabiri, 136 ; Eleu- 
sinian, 112, 169 

Mythic poetry, 88 

Mythical personages connected 
with the gods, 124 

Mythographers, Greek, 88 ; Ro- 
man, 88 

Mythology. 83; utility of a 
knowledge of, 86; resem- 
blance between classical 
and oriental, 86, 94, 95; 
differences between Greek 
and Roman, 87 

N. 
Nail, ceremony of fixing in the 

temple of Jupiter, 242 
Names, of Romans, 285 ; of 

towns in England ending 

in cester, 280 



Naval affairs of Greeks, 152, 
200, 212; of Romans, 282 

Naval battle, 203, 282 

Navigation of Greeks, 152 

Nemean games, 174 

Nemesis, 117 

Neptune, 98 

Nereids, 98 

Nero, his tyranny, 78; burning 
of Rome, 225 

Nessus, the centaur, 134 

Nestor, 137 

Netha, Egyptian deity, 104 

Nets, for fishing, 158 

New Testament, literary im- 
portance of, 242 ; Apocry- 
phal, 243 

Newton's Chronology, 64, 66 

New-year's presents at Rome, 
241 

Nicias, 64 

Night, goddess of, 101, 115, 117 

Nimrod, 69 

Ninias, 69 

Niobe, 102, 117,136 

Nobility, Roman, 254 

Nones, 61,240 

Notation, Greek, 213; Roman, 
267 

Nox, 100,115 

Numa, his influence at Rome, 
75, 226, 229 

Numbers, designated by let- 
ters, Grecian, 213; Roman, 
267 

Nuptial celebrations, 159, 220, 
287 

Nymphs, 126 

O. 

Oases, Egyptian, 55 

Oaths, of Greeks, 163; of Ro- 
mans, 239; Roman sol- 
diers, 270 

Obelisks, 19, 55 

Ocean, 98 

Octavius or Augustus, 77 

Odea, 19, 32 

Odin, 105 

Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, 
79 

CEnomaus and Pelops, 136 

Offences, penal, at Rome, 259 

Offerings to the gods, 148, 149, 
238 

Official robe of magistrates, 297 

Ogyges, 133 

Ointments of the ancients, 158, 
210, 299 

Old and new style, 62 

Olympic games, 173 

Olympus, residence of the gods, 
88 

Omens. 149, 168, 233 

Omphale, 134 

Oplitodrome, 172 

Ops or Rhea, 93 

Oracles, 149, 164, 166; Sibyline, 
240; of Apollo, 101 

Organ, musical instrument, 
217, 247 

Orion, 114, 125 

Ornaments, architectural, 290; 
personal of Romans, 299 

Orthos, 131 

Osiris, 110, 122 

Ostia, salt-works at, 262 

Ostracism, 187 

Otus and Ephialtes, 105 

Ovation, 284 

Ox, symbol of Osiris, 122; 
bones found in the Egyp- 
tian pyramid, 123 



GENERAL INDEX. 



329 



Paederasty, 220 

Pagan fables, coincidence of 
with scripture, 84 

Paganism and Popery, 137 

Painting, ancient, remains of, 
56 

Palace, origin of the word, 16 

Palsemon, 125 

Palladium, 104, 113 

Palm, token of victory, 243 

Pan, 116; priests of, 235 

Panathenaic vases, 172 

Panathenaea, 171 

Pandora, 107 

Panic, origin of the word, 116 

Pantheon, 17 

Parents, respect to^ 159 

Parga, fate of, 25 

Parks of the Romans, 292 

Parnassus, 127 

Paros, Chronicle of, 65 

Parthenon, 104 

Parthenopaeus, 136 

Parthian history, 70 

Patricians and plebeians, 243 

Patroclus, funeral of, 222 

Patrons and clients, 254, 295 

Paulus iEmilius, and the Epi- 
rotes, 25 

Peace, temple of, 18; temple 
of Janus in time of, 18, 93 

Pegasus, 131, 133 

Pelias, 135 

Pelopidae, 136 

Pelopidas of Thebes, 74 

Peloponnesian war. 74 

Pelops, 133, 136 

Peperino, stone so called, 303 

Pericles, statesman, &c. 73 

Perjury, at Rome, 239 

Persecution of Christians, 78, 
261 

Persephone, or Proserpine, 99 

Persepolis, ruins of, 44 

Perseus, 133 

Persian Chronology, outline of, 
70; kings, their residences, 
44 

Personification of various ob- 
jects, 119 

Pessinus, origin of the name, 94 

Petalism, 187 

Petrified city, 50 

Phaeton, 101 

PhSlanx, Grecian, 196 

Phial of tears, 303 

Philip of Macedon, 73 

Philippi,siteof,22; battle of, 77 

Philopoemen, 75 

Philosophy, Christian, 210 

Phlegon, eclipse named by, 64 

Phlegyas, 100 

Phocian, or Sacred War, 74 

Phocians, 27 

Phoebus, 100 

Phoenician history, 70 

Phoroneus, 133 

Physicians, Roman, 262 

Picus, king of Latins, 130 

Pierus, 126 

Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 149, 302 

Pillars, or columns, 19 

Pipe, of Pan, &c, 216, 217 

Pirithous, 135 

Pisistratus, 73, 177 

Plays of the Greeks, 172; Ro- 
mans, 243, 295 

Plebeians and Patricians at 
Rome, 75, 253 

Pleiades, the constellation, 108 

Pleione, 105 

Plow, Grecian, 212; Roman, 
264 J 

42 



Pluto, 98 

Plutus, 118 

Podalirius, 117 

Poetry, mythic, 88 

Poets, influence on religion of 
Greeks, 146 

Polemarch at Athens, 181 

Pollux and Castor, 18, 135 

Polydectes, 133 

Polydorus, 136 

Polygamy, not allowed by the 
Greeks, 220 

Polyhymnia, 127 

Polynices, 136 

Pomona, 119 

Pompeii, implements, &c, dis- 
interred at, 291, 292, 294, 
300 

Pompey, 70, 77 

Pompey's Pillar, 55 

Pomptine or Pontine marshes, 
11 

Pontiffs, Roman, 232 

Poor, at Athens, how support- 
ed, 183 

Populace, Roman, 253 

Population of Rome, 225 

Populousness of ancient na- 
tions, 178, 225 

Porticos, 19, 31, 36, 38 

Portumnus, 125 

Posthumius, 11 

Posts, on Roman roads, 15 

Pottery, Roman, 263 

Pound, Roman, or libra, 270 

Pracriti, Hindoo goddess, 94 

Praedial servitudes, 268 

Praefects, 251, 285 

Praetorian soldiers, 284 

Praetors, Roman, 249 

Praetus, 131 

Prayers, of Greeks, 147; of 
Romans, 237 

Precession of the equinoxes, a 
means of settling dates, 64 

Priam, kingdom of, 70 

Priapus, 119 

Priests and priestesses, Greek, 
147,162; imposture of, 164; 
Roman, 232, 235; classes 
of them made by later 
writers, 235 

Prison of state, at Rome, 260; 
Sparta, 187, 191; Athens 
and other places, 187 

Prizes, in the funeral games, 
222, 304 

Procession at the Circensian 
games. 243 ; triumphal,283 ; 
funeral, 302 

Proconsuls, 252 

Procris, 115 

Professions, at Rome, 262 

Property, among Romans, 268; 
basis of division into class- 
es, 253 

Propraetors, 252 

Proquaestors, 252 

Proserpine, 99, 112 

Provinces, Roman, 226, 258 

Provincial magistrates of Ro- 
mans, 252, 258 

Prytanes, at Athens, 184 

Psammeticus,71 

Psyche and Cupid, story of, 
107 

Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71 

Publicans of the New Testa- 
ment, 262 

Pulpit, origin of the word, 247 

Punic language, 40 ; wars, 72 

Punishments, Athenian, 186, 
199 ; Spartan, 191 ; Roman, 
260; of Roman soldiers, 275 
2 E 2 



Purifications, Greek, 147, 163; 

Roman, 239 
Purple dye, its costliness, 297 
Pygmies, 125 
Pyramids, 55, 123 
Pyrrha, 133 
Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76 
Pythian games, 101, 174 
Pytho, 101 



Quaestors, Roman, 250 
Queen of gods, 96 
Quinquatria, 104 
Quirites, rights of, 258 
Quoit, or Discus, 173, 243 

R. 

Race, Grecian, 172; Roman, 
243 

Races or families at Rome, 286 

Rainbow personified, 96, 115 

Raising a child, 287 

Rama, Hindoo deity, 110 

Ras Sem, the petrified city, 56 

Religion of the Greeks, 145, 
160 ; expenses of, 182 ; the 
Romans, 229 

Repasts, of Greeks, 157, 204; 
Romans, 293 

Residents at Athens, 178 

Revenue of Athens, 181 ; of 
Rome, 261 

Review-muster, or Armilus- 
trium, 242 

Rewards of Athens, 187; Spar- 
ta, 191 ; of Roman soldiers, 
274; Roman generals, 283 

Rhadamanthus, 100 

Rhea, 93 

Rhodes, Greek letters at, 34 

Riches, god of, 118 

Riding on horseback, 156, 266 

Rights of citizens and subjects 
of Rome, 258 

Ring, badge of knighthood, 256 ; 
of Gyges, 99 

Rings, 299 

Rites, of marriage, 220, 287; 
religious, 147, 148, 237 

Rivers called infernal, 99 

Roads, Roman, 15 

Roman antiquities, 227 

Romans, their empire, 75, 226; 
most brilliant era, 227 

Rome, goddess of, 119; foun- 
dation of. 225 ; govern- 
ment of, 248, 249; extent 
of empire, 226 ; luxury and 
decline, 227 ; classes or di- 
vision of the people, 252; 
population, 225; topogra- 
phy, 16; chronology of, 75 

Romulus and Remus, 225 

Rope-dancers, 244 

Rotunda or Pantheon, 17 

Rowers, their benches in the 
ancient galley, 202 

Runners among the Greeks, 199 

Running, one of the games, 172 

Rural deities, 120 

S. 

Sacer, Mt. 76 

Sackbut, 217 

Sacred or Phocian War, 74, 165 

Sacrifices, human, 91 ; of the 
Greeks, 147, 148, 163; Ro- 
mans, 232, 237 ; origin of, 
148 

Saddles and stirrups, 266 

Saguntum, siege of, 76 

Salainat or Memnon, statue of, 
115 



330 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Salaries, at Rome, 262 

Sale by auction, 268 

Salic priests, 235 

Salt, token of friendship, 207 

Salt-works, Roman, 262 

Salus, goddess of health, 118 

Samuel, 69 

Sardanapalus, 69 

Sardis, burning of, 73 

Sardonic laugh, 40 

Saturn, 91 

Satyrs, 130 

Scaling ladders, 280 

Scepters, 248 

Schiva, Hindoo deity, 110 

Scipio, conqueror of Carthage, 

77 
Scironian rocks, 28 
Scriptures, Sacred, attested in 

Pagan fictions, 84 
Scylla and Charybdis, 132 
Scythian guards at Athens, 32 
Sea-fight, 203, 282 ; mock, 243 
Seasons personified, 61, 127 
Seatur, German deity, 91 
Sectorian war, 8 
Seleucidae, 70 
Self-devotion, 239 
Semele, 109 
Semiramis, 69 

Senate, Athenian, 184; Spar- 
tan, 190; Roman, 256 
Septuagint, chronology of, 66 
Sepulchers, Greek, 222; of 
early Christians, 223 ; Ro- 
man in England, 303 
Serapis, 123 
Serfs, in Italy, 290 
Serpent, in fables respecting 
Apollo, and Crishna, 101; 
emblem of health, 117 
Servitudes, 268 
Sesostris, 71 
Sesterce, value of, 267 
Seven wonders of the world, 114 
Sewers of Rome, 19 
Shield, the sacred, 235 
Shields, ancient. 153, 194, 274; 
of Hercules and Achilles, 
153 
Ships, Grecian, 154, 200 s , Ro- 
man, 282 
Shipwreck, practice of those 

surviving, 238 
Shoes, 208, 298; of horses, 266 
Shows or spectacles at Rome, 

243 
Sibyls, books of, 240 
Sieges, manner of, 198, 280; 

celebrated, 282 
Signals of battle, 198 
Signs, in the heavens, &c. 167 
Silence, god of, 124 
Sileni, 130 
Silenus, curious image of, at 

Paros, 110 
Silk, known to the ancients, 

209, 298 
Singing at feasts, 207 
Sirens, 125, 126 
Sistrum, 218 
Sisyphus, 100 
Siva, Hindoo deity, 95 
Slaves, in Greece, 159, 178, 180 ; 
at Sparta, 189; Rome, 285, 
289; patron goddess of the 
freed, 120, 290; trade in, 
263 ; republic of, in Sicily,41 
Sleep, god of, 130 
Sneezing, ominous, 149 
Sobriquet or burlesque name, 

286 
Social entertainments, 214, 295; 
war in Italy, 77 



Socrates, his trial, &c. 74 

Sofa-bpd,212 

Sol, 114; statue of, at Rhodes, 

114 
Solar cycle, 63 

Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 
193; of Roman, 271, 272; 
load carried by Roman, 
274, 280 
Solomon, reisn of, 69 

Solon, his influence on Athens, 
177 

Somnambulism, in ancient 
times, 166 

Soul, state of, after death, 95 ; 
weighing of, by Egyptians, 
100 

Spain, mines of, 262 

Sparta, under Lycurgus, 142; 
rival of Athens, 142; 
changes in government, 
.151 ; system of education, 
189; magistrates of, 189; 
public meals, 190; consti- 
tution, 188, 190; topogra- 
phy, 36 

Spectacles or shows, Roman, 
243 

Sphere of Chiron, 64 

Sphinx, 132 

Spirits, departed, 99; fallen, 129 

Spoils of war, how divided, 
154, 199 

Spoletlo, aqueduct at, 10 

Spurs, 266 

Stage, actors on Greek, 176; 
parts of Roman, 247 

Staircases, 291 

Standards, military, Grecian, 
198 ; Roman, 272 

Statues, found at Pompeii, 298 

Stheno, 130 

Stirrups, 266 

Stonehenge, 148 

Storms, goddesses of, 128 

Strangers, treatment of by the 
Greeks, 207 

Stucco-painting, 290 

Styx, 99 

Suliotes, bravery of, 25 

Sun, the Fountain of, 56; sta- 
tue of at Rhodes, 42 

Sun-dial, 60 

Sun-god, 93; worship, 114 

Superior gods, 91 

Suppers of the Romans, 294 

Supplicants, 147 

Surgical instruments, of Ro- 
mans, 263 

Swearing, among the Romans, 
239 

Swimming amongthe ancients, 
293 

Swords, 196, 274 ; of Noricum, 7 

Sybarites, 13, 15 

Syenite, 54 

Sylla, and Marius, 77 ; conque- 
ror of Athens, 177 

Syracuse, constitution of, 192; 
topography of, 40 

Syria, kingdom of, 70 

Syrinx, 116 

Sythes, chariots armed with, 
194 



Table, of Isis, 123; genealogi- 
cal, of mythology, 90; an- 
cient for eating, 206, 294 

Tables and charts, 66 

Tables, twelve, 261 

Talent, value of, 213 

Tammuz, Syrian deity, 106 

Tantalus, 100, 136 



Tapestry, ancient, 218 

Tarentines, 15 

Tarpeian rock, 16, 260 

Tarquin, expulsion of, 75, 227 

Tartarus, 99 

Taxes at Rome, 261 ; Athens, 
181 

Teachers at Rome, 262 

Tears, preservation of, 303 

Telesphorus, 118 

Temples, ancient, 148; Gre- 
cian, 146, 148, 160; in time 
of Homer, 148; Roman, 18, 
230; dedication of, &c. 
238; at Athens, 178; of 
Jupiter Ammon, 95; of 
Isis, 123; Janus, 18; Juno 
Lacinia, 15; Solomon's, 
52, 69 

Tents, of Greek soldiers, 154 

Terminus, 119 

Terpsichore, 127 

Terra cotta, 263 

Thalia, 127 

Theatre, performances in, 176; 
ofRomans,246; of Greeks, 
175 

Theban war, heroes of, 136 

Thebes, constitution of, 192; 
supremacy of, 74 

Themis, 94, 117 

Themistocles, his eminence in 
state, 73 

Theogony, Greek, 87, 146 

Theomancy, 167 

Thersander, 136 

Theseus, 134 

Thessaly, 24 

Thrace, 20, 21, 145 

Thracians, widows, 149 

Thrasybulus, 177 

Thrasyllus, monument of, 33 

Threshing-floor, 264 

Thyestes, 136 

Thymbra, battle of, 70 

Thyone, 109 

Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 110 

Time, personified. 91 

Titanides, 91, 124 

Titans, 124 

Tithonus, 114 

Titus, conqueror, 70 

Tityus, 100 

Toilet, Grecian, 209; Roman, 
299, 300 

Tomb, of Cyrus, &c, 223 ; 'Ro- 
man at Pompeii, 303; at 
Cyrene, 66; of Virgil, 12 

Tombs of early Christians, 303 

Topography, of Rome, 16; of 
Athens, 28; Sparta, 36 

Totila, Rome laid waste by, 225 

Towers, ancient, 281 

Towns, with names ending in 
cester, 280 

Trade, at Rome, 263 ; in slaves, 
289 

Traditions of mythology, 83 t 

Translucent stone, 290 

Treasury, Athenian, 182; Ro- 
man, 261 

Treaties, 157, 234 

Trees, cultivated by Romans, 
264 

Trial, of persons accused, 185, 
259 

Tribes, of Athens, 177, 178; 

Sparta, 188; Rome, 252 
Tribunes, Roman, 76, 250, 251 ! 
Trident, 95 
Tripods, consecrated to Apollo, 

149, 165; street of, 33 
Triptolemus, 110 
Triremes, 202 



Trismegistus, 108 

Tritons, 125 

Triumph of Roman generals, 
283 

Triumvirate, 77,252, 267 

Trojan history, 70 ; war, 70, 72 

Trophies, 19, 149, 199 

Trophonius, oracle of, 166 

Trumpets, 217 

Tubal-Cain, 107 

Tunnel of Pausilypus, 12 

Tusks of the Calydonian boar, 
26 

Twelve Tables, laws of, 261 

Tydeus, 136 

Typhon, 125, 132 

Tyranny, Roman, over pro- 
vinces, 258 

Tyrants, the thirty, 74, 177 

Tyre, capture of, by Alexan- 
der, 70 

U. 

Ulysses. 137 

Urania, 127 

Uranus, 113 

Urns, for voting, 184; for de- 
positing the ashes of the 
dead, 221,303 

Utensils, ancient, found at 
Pompeii, 291, 300; repre- 
sented on Egyptian monu- 
ments, 232 



Valor, 18 

Valley ofMoffeta, 12 

Valmic, Hindoo poet, 110 

Vases, Panathenaic, 172; sa- 
crificial, 232; Egyptian, 121 

Veils, 208, 209 

Venus, 105; places sacred to 
her, 106; temple of, at Hie- 
rapolis, 106; at Paphos, 
53; Anadyomene, 106 

Vertumnus, 119 

Vessels, for holding wine, 296, 
297; of war, 200, 282; sa- 
crificial, 232 

Vesta, 93, 113 

Vestal virgins, 113,236 

Vices, deified, 122 

Victims, in sacrifice, 237 

Victory, goddess of, 120; re- 
wards of, 199, 204 



GENERAL INDEX. 

Vigils, or watches of Romans 
59 

Villas, or country seats of Ro- 
mans, 12. 291 

Violet, robe of office, 297 

Violin, ancient, 217 

Virgo, 117 

Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 95 

Virtues, deified, 122 

Voting, Athenian mode of, 183, 
184; Roman, 256, 257 

Vows, 238 

Vulcan, 107 

Vulcanalia, 107 

W. 

Wages of Roman soldiers, 274 

Walls, Roman in England, 40 

Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 108 

War, heroes of the Theban, 

136; of the Trojan, 136; 

affairs of, among Greeks, 

153, 193; Romans, 270: 

declaration of, 197, 234; 

the Social, 77; the Sacred, 

165; the Sectorian, 8; of 

Troy, Bryant's view of it, 

137 

War-chariots, 193 

War-engines, 280 

War-galleys, 200, 282 

Wards or boroughs of Attica, 
178 

Watches, divisions of the night, 
60, 240, 280 

Watch-word, 280 

Water-clock, 60 

Wealth, instances of Roman, 
267; god of, 118 

Weapons or arms, of the an- 
cients, 153, 194, 274 

Weeding, goddess of, 120 

Week, known to Egyptians, 61 

Weights and measures, Greek, 
214; Roman, 266 

Well of Syene, 54 

Widows, burning of at fune- 
rals, 149 

Wife of the Rex Sacrorum, and 
of the Flamen Dialis, 234, 
235 

Wills, 221 

Wind-instruments of music, 
217 

Wind, woven, 209 



331 

Windows, of Roman houses, 

Winds, as gods, 128; temple 

of, 31, 60 
Wine-cellars, 291, 296 
Wines, of Greeks, 204; of Ro- 
mans, 295; history of, 204. 
297 ' ' 

Winter-quarters, of Roman 

soldiers, 280 
Witnesses in courts, 239 
Women, condition and em- 
ployments of among the 
Greeks, 158, 218; Romans, 
287 
Wonders of the world, seven, 

114 
World, as known to the an- 
cients, 3 
Worship, Greek religious, 148; 

Roman, 237 
Wrestling, 173, 243 
Writers, on mythology, 88, 
89; on Greek antiquities, 
144, 146; Roman antiqui- 
ties, 227, 228 ; Roman mili- 
tary affairs, 270; ancient 
weights and measures,270 ; 
chronology, 66; on horo- 
logy, 60 ; topography of 
Rome, 16; topography of 
Athens, 33; of Sparta, 38; 
Byzantium, 20; Babylon 
and Nineveh, 53; Jerusa- 
lem, 52.— See also refer- 
ences under specific sub- 
jects; e. g. for writers on 
Jewish history, see Jewish 
history, in this Index. 

X. 

Xerxes, king of Persia, 70 

Y. 

Year, division of by the an- 
cients, 62 

Yero or Jero, 117 

Young, time of burying among 
the Greeks, 221 

Youth, goddess of, 96 

Z. 

Zama, battle of, 72, 77 
Zodiac ofDenderah,54 
Zones 4 



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GIOUS SYSTEM OF PROFESSED CHRISTIANS, in the higher and middle 

classes, contrasted with Real Christianity. With an Introductory Essay, by the 

Rev. Daniel Wilson, A. M., late Vicar of Islington, now bishop of Calcutta. 12mo. 
AN ADDRESS TO THE YOUNG ON THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION. 

By John Foster. 32mo. 
BEAUTIES OF ROBERT HALL. 18mo. 
BICKERSTETH'S HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS, designed for the 

use of families and schools, and for private edification. ]2mo. 
THE CHRISTIAN'S DEFENSIVE DICTIONARY. Being an alphabetical refu- 
tation of the general objections to the Sacred Scriptures. By Dr. Sleigh. 12mo. 
LETTERS TO AN ANXIOUS INQUIRER. By T. Carlton Henry. With an 

introductory essay, by the Rev. G. T. Bedell, D.D. 12mo. 
THE LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF ROBINSON CRUSOE: Revised with 

special reference to moral tendency, and adapted to the capacity of the young. 

With more thun one hundred illustrations. 



J 

f "19 70 














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